Parallel hardware hypervisor for virtualizing application-specific supercomputers

ABSTRACT

A parallel hypervisor system for virtualizing application-specific supercomputers is disclosed. The hypervisor system comprises (a) at least one software-virtual hardware pair consisting of a software application, and an application-specific virtual supercomputer for accelerating the said software application, wherein (i) The virtual supercomputer contains one or more virtual tiles; and (ii) The software application and the virtual tiles communicate among themselves with messages; (b) One or more reconfigurable physical tiles, wherein each virtual tile of each supercomputer can be implemented on at least one physical tile, by configuring the physical tile to perform the virtual tile&#39;s function; and (c) A scheduler implemented substantially in hardware, for parallel pre-emptive scheduling of the virtual tiles on the physical tiles.

REFERENCES CITED

Related co-pending, co-owned US patent applications:

US non-provisional patent application no. Date Filed Title InventorsAssignee 13/156,881 Jun. 9, 2011 Storage unsharing Kultursay Global etal. Supercomputing Corporation 13/296,232 Nov. 15, 2011 Method andsystem for Ebcioglu Global (referred to in this converting a single- etal. Supercomputing document as threaded software Corporation[Supercomputer]) program into an application-specific supercomputer

US Patents

U.S. Pat. No. Issue Date Title Inventors Assignee 6,826,615 B2 Nov. 09,2004 Apparatus and method for Barrall et BlueArc UK hardwareimplementation or al. Limited acceleration of operating system functions7,603,540 B2 Oct. 13, 2009 Using field-programmable Doering etInternational gate array (FPGA) al. Business technology with a Machinesmicroprocessor for Corporation reconfigurable, instruction levelhardware acceleration 7,409,670 B1 Aug. 5, 2008 Scheduling logic on aPritchard et Altera programmable device al. Corporation implementedusing a high- level language 7,555,566 B2 Jun. 30, 2009 Massivelyparallel Blumrich et International supercomputer al. Business MachinesCorporation 7,761,687 B2 Jul. 20, 2010 Ultrascalable petaflop Blumrichet International parallel supercomputer al. Business MachinesCorporation US patent Published System and method for Nollet et al.application Mar. 11, 2004 hardware software 2004/0049672 multitasking ona A1 reconfigurable platform 8,020,163 B2 Sep. 13, 2011 Heterogenousmultiprocessor Nollet et al. IMEC, Xilinx, network-on-chip devices, Inc.methods and operating systems for control thereof 6,034,538 Mar. 7, 2000Virtual logic for Abramovici Lucent reconfigurable hardware TechnologiesInc.

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FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to a parallel hardware hypervisor system forvirtualizing application-specific supercomputers.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Maturity of Processor Architecture Research:

-   -   The general-purpose processor architecture research field has        matured, with attempts to further increase the performance of        general-purpose processors presently encountering (i)        frequency, (ii) power, (iii) design complexity, and (iv) memory        wall barriers. However, the need for increased performance and        reduced power continues to exist.

Difficulty of Parallel Programming:

-   -   Abandoning the extremely convenient, easy-to-use sequential        programming model and programming explicitly for parallel        processors constitute one way for increasing performance. Recent        multi-core processor architectures [5] that are enabled by        increasing VLSI densities indeed encourage this approach.        However, programming a parallel multi-core processor system is        not a natural and easy task, due to, e.g., race conditions,        deadlocks, and non-deterministic bugs that are hard to track.        Increased parallelism in general-purpose processors has in fact        increased the difficulty of programming and using them [2].

Inefficiencies of the Hypervisor and the Operating System:

-   -   Sharing of computing resources among different independent        applications and virtual machines has been emphasized at least        since the days of early mainframes [1]. This emphasis on        resource sharing continues to this day. Recently, Cloud        Computing [3] and Virtualization [4] have emerged as preferred        methods of offering computing and application services with        resource sharing. By breaking the barriers of the traditional        in-house IT shop approach, cloud computing offers centralized        high performance computing resources, economies of scale, and        radically higher degrees of efficiency. For example, a large        cloud computing data center, along with a fast and reliable        encrypted network, can greatly amplify the performance of an        inexpensive client device, while preserving the security        properties of an in-house IT shop.

However, cloud computing today relies on operating systems orhypervisors that are designed in software, and that lack scalability.For example, the cost of an interrupt may involve substantial overhead(e.g., ten thousand instructions) in today's operating systems.Moreover, the transition between privilege levels (as in an interrupt orsystem call) requires a global serialization/pipeline flush ingeneral-purpose processors. The schedulers within operating systems andhypervisors alike are not designed in an algorithmically parallelscalable way, to handle massively parallel systems. At the extremeperformance levels that will be needed in the future, such serializationoverheads will become important. To alleviate the severe performanceslowdown consequences of Amdahl's law, the slowdown effects due to boththe OS and the hypervisor must be reduced.

Prevailing Solutions:

Current computer industry focus areas include two prevailing approaches,namely: energy-efficient multi-core processors [5] and hybrid computingarchitectures [6], which, while not directly addressing the significantproblems mentioned above (namely, the difficulty of parallelprogramming, and the inefficiency of the OS and hypervisor), do promiseto increase performance and to reduce power. We will review the hybridcomputing architectures, since they are most relevant toapplication-specific supercomputers, the subject of the presentdocument.

In general-purpose hybrid computing architectures, the acceleration unitconsists of graphics processing units (GPUs) with their own specializedInstruction Set Architecture [6]. These acceleration units are capableof accelerating graphics applications, as well as a range of additionalhigh performance computing applications, provided that suitable parts ofthe applications are re-coded to expose explicit parallelism and to takeadvantage of the massively parallel architecture of specializedprocessors.

By contrast, reconfigurable hybrid computing architectures(reconfigurable computers) deploy field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs)as the acceleration unit, and offer more flexibility. Typically, acollection of one or more FPGAs acts as a co-processor to eachgeneral-purpose host processor [7] [8]. While arbitrary code in generalcannot take advantage of the FPGAs using today's tools, suitable codefragments can again be recoded to expose explicit parallelism and thencompiled with a high-level tool to run on the FPGAs.

Even though the commercial systems with FPGAs are very promising inboosting the application performance with less power than traditionalservers, they suffer from a few shortcomings:

Lack of Scalable Pre-Emptive Scheduling:

-   -   Many of today's reconfigurable computer systems do not implement        pre-emptive scheduling of accelerators: they instead allow a        hardware accelerator to keep its share of hardware resources as        long as it runs. As a consequence, even when an accelerator is        idle, e.g., waiting for an input, it occupies hardware resources        until it finishes. This potentially leads to the        underutilization of the system. Where pre-emptive hardware task        scheduling is indeed done [15][16][17], it is done in a        non-scalable way, with software involvement. Existing        pre-emptive schedulers may also impose restrictions on        inter-task communication, for example, task dependences may be        in the form of a DAG (Directed Acyclic Graph) [U.S. Pat. No.        6,034,538].

Lack of Scalability of Hardware-Accelerated Applications:

-   -   Today's software and hardware design tools do not virtualize        application-specific, custom hardware accelerators at the        supercomputer scale.    -   Low programmer productivity: Using a reconfigurable hardware        platform is complex at present, because of the general        difficulty of parallel programming, mentioned earlier, and the        general difficulty of hardware design with today's tools.

Missing Semi-Reconfigurable ASICs:

-   -   An FPGA is an interpreter of arbitrary circuits specified at the        Register Transfer Level, and is therefore very flexible and        general, while an ASIC implementation of a given RTL circuit is        in fact a compiled version of that circuit, which has        performance and power advantages over the corresponding FPGA        implementation. To benefit from the lower power and higher        performance advantages of an ASIC within a reconfigurable        system, a systematic solution to utilize ASICs for application        acceleration (beyond the solution of implementing only one        function on a given kind of ASIC) is desirable. The existing        reconfigurable computer systems do not systematically support        application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) in addition to        FPGAs, as a source of hardware acceleration.

Our Approach:

The present document's system does address the two significant problems(difficulty of parallel programming, inefficiency of the OS andhypervisor) mentioned above. It also distinguishes itself from the citedart in at least the following ways:

Scalable Pre-Emptive Scheduling:

-   -   The present document's system introduces a scalable parallel        hardware hypervisor system, where the hypervisor functions        related to the allocation, de-allocation, and relocation of        hardware supercomputing tasks with unrestricted inter-task        communication, are achieved with parallel algorithms implemented        in hardware. The resources allocated to a virtual        application-specific supercomputer can increase or decrease on        demand, at the virtual tile granularity. The parallel        implementation of such hypervisor functions is a difficult        problem, giving rise to several race conditions, which have been        addressed in the present document.

Scalability of Hardware-Accelerated Applications:

-   -   The present document's system virtualizes application-specific,        custom hardware accelerators at the supercomputer scale.

Programmer Productivity:

-   -   The present document's system establishes a hardware        acceleration programming model and automated compilation method,        which achieves 100% compatibility between the original        single-threaded software application and the virtual        supercomputer created from it. This is a model that allows        better programmer productivity.

Semi-Reconfigurable ASICs:

-   -   The present document's system establishes a systematic method to        create semi-reconfigurable ASIC modules, allowing the same ASIC        module to realize multiple functions, while retaining the ASIC        advantages of lower power and/or higher performance.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

We describe a parallel hypervisor system for virtualizingapplication-specific supercomputers, where the system comprises:

-   -   At least one software-virtual hardware pair consisting of a        software application, and an application-specific virtual        supercomputer for accelerating the said software application,        where:        -   The virtual supercomputer contains one or more virtual            tiles; and        -   The software application and the virtual tiles communicate            among themselves with messages;    -   One or more reconfigurable physical tiles, wherein each virtual        tile of each virtual supercomputer can be implemented on at        least one physical tile, by configuring the physical tile to        perform the virtual tile's function; and    -   A scheduler implemented substantially in hardware, for parallel        pre-emptive scheduling of the virtual tiles on the physical        tiles.

A virtual or physical tile contains arbitrary digital circuits. Thehypervisor system can be used to implement cloud computing with softwareapplications accelerated by application-specific virtual supercomputers.Physical hardware resources can be incrementally increased or decreasedon-demand for each application, at the physical tile granularity.Features of the hypervisor system include:

-   -   A globally coherent virtual tile to physical tile map, which is        cached locally near each physical tile, allowing        -   the message source physical tile containing the message            source virtual tile            -   to send a message directly and efficiently to        -   the message destination physical tile containing the message            destination virtual tile whenever there is a hit in the            local virtual tile to physical tile cache near the message            source physical tile.    -   Scalable on-chip and cross-chip networks that allow massively        parallel transmission of messages.    -   A compiler technique whereby an arbitrary code fragment from a        sequential software application can be converted to a virtual        application-specific supercomputer automatically, for use within        the hypervisor system.    -   A semi-reconfigurable ASIC module, designed to realize one among        a finite number of virtual tiles with resource sharing. The        identity of the virtual tile is determined by the contents of        the configuration memory of the union physical tile, which        offers ASIC advantages within a reconfigurable system.    -   Guaranteed isolation among the hardware-accelerated applications        belonging to different customers.

The hypervisor design avoids system-wide serialization points, throughthe parallel handling of cache misses and coherence actions within thelocal virtual tile to physical tile caches described above, by using thefollowing key hardware units:

Multiple Owner Units:

the set of all virtual tiles in the system is partitioned, and one ownerunit is assigned to each partition. An owner unit maintains the map fromeach virtual tile in its partition to a physical tile (if the virtualtile is mapped) or to NULL (if the virtual tile is not mapped). Usingmultiple owner units simultaneously allows parallel, independent searchand tile pre-emption activities.

A monitor unit continuously obtains statistics about activity in thesystem. It then analyzes the statistics and provides replies torequesting owner units, in a parallel manner, to suggest a new physicaltile to pre-empt to each owner unit, according to a tile replacementpolicy.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 Illustrates a couple of software applications each accelerated bya virtual supercomputer (small illustrative example)

FIG. 2 Illustrates an example of the operation of the hypervisor. Step 1of 8.

FIG. 3 Illustrates an example of the operation of the hypervisor. Step 2of 8.

FIG. 4 Illustrates an example of the operation of the hypervisor. Step 3of 8.

FIG. 5 Illustrates an example of the operation of the hypervisor. Step 4of 8.

FIG. 6 Illustrates an example of the operation of the hypervisor. Step 5of 8.

FIG. 7 Illustrates an example of the operation of the hypervisor. Step 6of 8.

FIG. 8 Illustrates an example of the operation of the hypervisor. Step 7of 8.

FIG. 9 Illustrates an example of the operation of the hypervisor. Step 8of 8.

FIG. 10 Provides a legend for the symbols used in hardware schematics ofthe present document.

FIG. 11 Illustrates the hardware design of the flat, non-partitionedhypervisor.

FIG. 12 Illustrates the hardware design of the hypervisor afterpartitioning and chip unioning (cloud building block chip).

FIG. 13 Illustrates the internal organization of a physical tileharness.

FIG. 14 Illustrates the internal organization of an owner unit.

FIG. 15 Illustrates the internal organization of the monitor unit.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

We will now describe the details of a parallel hypervisor system forvirtualizing application-specific supercomputers, where the systemcomprises:

-   -   At least one software-virtual hardware pair consisting of a        software application, and an application-specific virtual        supercomputer for accelerating the said software application,        where:        -   The virtual supercomputer contains one or more virtual            tiles; and        -   The software application and the virtual tiles communicate            among themselves with messages;    -   One or more reconfigurable physical tiles, wherein each virtual        tile of each virtual supercomputer can be implemented on at        least one physical tile, by configuring the physical tile to        perform the virtual tile's function; and    -   A scheduler implemented substantially in hardware, for parallel        pre-emptive scheduling of the virtual tiles on the physical        tiles.

The preferred embodiment of the hypervisor consists of the followingmajor parts:

-   -   The overall hardware structure of the hypervisor system        -   FPGA or ASIC chips containing one or more physical tiles,            on-chip network, owner unit and monitor components        -   19 inch rack modules        -   19 inch racks each containing multiple rack modules        -   The whole reconfigurable system containing multiple racks    -   An example illustrating the operation of the hypervisor    -   Primitive hardware building blocks of the hypervisor    -   Key hardware components of the hypervisor        -   The reconfigurable physical tile        -   The physical tile harness unit attached to each physical            tile for virtualizing the routing of incoming and outgoing            of messages        -   The owner units for implementing parallel searching of the            table mapping virtual tiles to physical tiles and parallel            pre-emption        -   The monitor unit for collecting statistics about the system            and suggesting physical tiles to pre-empt        -   Discussion of potential race conditions in the hypervisor            system and their solutions        -   This completes the description of the operation of the            baseline reconfigurable system and hypervisor.    -   Optimizations: We then describe various optimizations and other        applications of the hypervisor system.

The Overall Hardware Structure of the Hypervisor System

We will first describe the overall hardware structure of the preferredembodiment of the hypervisor system. The hypervisor system is organizedin hierarchical enclosures, very much like a non-virtual (real)supercomputer. It comprises the following, starting from the leaves ofthe hierarchy and going towards the root:

-   -   An FPGA or ASIC chip (called a cloud building block chip),        containing several physical tiles, an owner unit, possibly a        monitor unit, and a number of internal on-chip networks, with        I/O pins including        -   Optional PCI Express interface for communicating with an            attached host processor system;        -   DDRn interface to DRAM units (e.g., organized as Dual Inline            Memory Modules) on the same rack module;        -   Several incomplete hypercube links implemented with copper            or optical high-speed serial communication cables; and        -   Wide high speed busses connected to neighboring FPGA/ASIC            chips on the same rack module, with differential signaling;    -   A rack module containing several cloud building block chips and        DRAM modules;    -   19 inch racks each containing several rack modules;    -   The entire hypervisor system containing several 19 inch racks.

“Incomplete hypercube” is used in the sense that the total number ofchips in the system need not be a power of two. The total number ofchips in the system can be any number greater than or equal to one.Although we will stick to the incomplete hypercube topology in thisdocument, for systems with a very large number of chips, acube-connected cycles topology (where a communicating group of chipsserves a single hypercube node, therefore effectively increasing thenumber of hypercube links of each node) can be used.

An Example Illustrating the Operation of the Hypervisor

To motivate the forthcoming detailed hardware description of thehypervisor system, we will start by describing the operation of thehypervisor system on a small example. FIG. 1 illustrates two softwareapplications running on traditional commodity host microprocessorsystems, which are each accelerated by an application-specific virtualsupercomputer (small illustrative examples shown; typical virtualsupercomputers will have many more virtual tiles). Each virtualsupercomputer comprises one or more virtual tiles that communicate withmessages among themselves and with the software application. Theobjective of the hypervisor system is to make each virtual tile believeit is communicating with other virtual tiles of the same virtualsupercomputer, as if they were all part of a non-virtual supercomputer,while in reality those virtual tiles which remain idle for some timewill likely be pre-empted by other virtual tiles that become active.

When we say “cache” within the following text, we do not mean a datacache or instruction cache. The caches of the hypervisor systemimplement a mapping from virtual tiles to physical tiles; they do notcontain data. These caches help speed up the transmission of messageswithin a virtual supercomputer.

The key to fast sending of messages within the virtual supercomputer isa set of globally coherent first level caches mapping virtual tiles tophysical tiles, such that there is a cache present right next to eachphysical tile. Such a local cache allows:

-   -   the message source physical tile p1 containing the message        source virtual tile v1 to send a message directly to    -   the message destination physical tile p2 containing the message        destination virtual tile v2        very efficiently with a local first level cache access, by        adding only a few cycles to the latency, whenever the mapping        (v2→p2) is found in the local first level cache near physical        tile p1. The physical destination tile number “p2” is added to        the message at the time it leaves the physical tile p1, which        guides the message from the physical tile p1 to the physical        tile p2 within a scalable on-chip and cross-chip network. p2 is        in fact the destination port number of the network, which makes        routing simple, e.g., in a butterfly network where each network        stage makes a routing decision based on the next bit of the        destination port number. When the message reaches the physical        tile p2, the physical destination tile number “p2” is deleted        from the message, and the original message that emanated from v1        is recovered. In this manner, the virtual tile v2, contained in        the physical tile p2, remains completely unaware of physical        tiles, and believes the message came from virtual tile v1. The        local first level caches containing (virtual tile→physical tile)        mappings are kept globally coherent and consistent with each        other.

The virtual tile numbered −1 is special within each virtualsupercomputer: it is used as a message exchange gateway to thecorresponding software application running on the host processor system,which is reached via a PCI Express connection. This virtual tile number−1 is permanently pinned to a physical tile during the lifetime of theapplication, for simplifying message routing.

Each (application, virtual supercomputer) pair in the hypervisor systemis assigned a unique application id number (e.g., 0x00=application Ainstance 0, 0x10=application B instance 0, 0x11=application B instance1, . . . ).

As opposed to local virtual tile numbers, which are integers in therange −1, 0, . . . , maximum virtual tile number within the givenvirtual supercomputer, a global virtual tile uniquely identifies anyvirtual tile within any virtual supercomputer in the hypervisor system,and is a pair (application id, local virtual tile number within thisapplication). In the following text, a virtual tile (when not explicitlyspecified as a “local virtual tile” or “global virtual tile”) will meana global virtual tile.

FIG. 2, FIG. 3, FIG. 4, FIG. 5, FIG. 6, FIG. 7, FIG. 8, FIG. 9 describethe individual steps of the hypervisor when virtual tiles of the smallexample virtual supercomputers send messages to each other.

FIG. 2 shows the initial state of the system before any messages aresent. Only the local virtual tiles numbered −1 within each virtualsupercomputer have been mapped to physical tiles, which are capable ofexchanging messages with the corresponding software application througha PCI Express connection. All local first level caches near the physicaltiles are initially empty. In this example, the virtual tiles have beenpartitioned into two groups, and these groups have been assigned toowner units 0 (Owner₀) and 1 (Owner₁). Multiple owners units are used,so that searching and pre-emption operations on virtual tiles indifferent partitions can proceed independently, and in parallel. Anowner unit is responsible for maintaining a partition of a table mappingeach virtual tile to the physical tile containing the virtual tile (ifthe virtual tile is currently mapped), or to NULL (if virtual tile isnot currently mapped). For each virtual tile v that is mapped to aphysical tile p, the owner unit also keeps a list of sharers, i.e., thelist of physical tiles (other than p) that have locally cached themapping (v→p).

The owner unit for a virtual tile is found by computing a simple hashfunction of the virtual tile.

FIG. 3 shows the result when virtual tile A⁻¹ contained in physical tileP₀ sends a message to virtual tile A₀, which is not yet contained in anyphysical tile. After the message leaves P₀, its virtual destination tileA₀ is searched in the local first level cache near P₀; but this cache isempty, and hence a local first level cache miss occurs. The cache missis handled by owner° which is known to be responsible for virtual tileA₀. The monitor unit is a hardware unit which is responsible forcollecting statistics from each physical tile and implementing a LeastRecently Used tile replacement policy in this example. Owner° asks themonitor unit to provide the best physical tile to allocate A₀ in. Themonitor unit responds with P₂, which is an empty tile. A₀ is thenallocated in P₂ by owner°, i.e., owner° reads the state andconfiguration of virtual tile A₀ from hypervisor storage, andreconfigures empty physical tile P₂ to realize virtual tile A₀. Themapping (A₀→P₂) is locally cached within P₀. P₀ is also added to thesharers list of the (A₀→P₂) mapping within the owner° unit. Now, a cachemiss will no longer occur, and the sending of the message from P₀ cancontinue from where it left off. The destination physical tile P₂ isadded to the original message from virtual tile A⁻¹ to virtual tile A₀.Thanks to the presence of the destination physical tile field, themessage finds its way from P₀ to P₂ through a scalable communicationnetwork (e.g., a butterfly network) connecting all physical tiles. Whenthe message reaches the physical tile P₂, any extra fields in themessage are deleted, and the virtual tile A₀ contained in the physicaltile P₂ receives the original message, as sent by virtual tile A⁻¹. Notethat the virtual tiles A⁻¹ and A₀ are unaware of any physical tiles,they act as if the virtual tiles were real hardware tiles connected by areal network. All these scheduling actions are done completely throughscalable parallel hardware, to be described starting at paragraph[0039], without requiring the assistance of a software operating systemor a software hypervisor.

FIG. 4 shows the activities when virtual tile A₀ contained in physicaltile P₂ sends a message to virtual tile A⁻¹ contained in physical tileP₀. Since P₂'s local first level cache is empty, a cache miss occurs.The cache miss is handled by owner° which is known to be responsible forA⁻¹. In this case, the destination virtual tile A⁻¹ is already mappedwithin owner°, therefore no reconfiguration activity by owner° isneeded. The mapping (A⁻¹→P₀) is locally cached near the physical tileP₂. Also, P₂ is recorded as a sharer of the (A₁→P₀) mapping withinowner₀. Then, the message from A₀ to A⁻¹ is delivered.

FIG. 5 shows the activities when virtual tile A⁻¹ contained in physicaltile P₀ sends a message to virtual tile A₀ contained in physical tileP₂. In this case, since the mapping (A₀→P₂) is already in the localfirst level cache of P₀, there is a cache hit; hence, the message israpidly sent to the destination physical tile P₂ and then forwarded tothe virtual tile A₀ contained in P₂ in its original form. There are nomapping changes at this step, which is intended to show the benefits ofhitting in the local first level cache.

Notice that at this point, virtual tile A₁ has not been used and has notbeen allocated in a physical tile. If the virtual tile A₁ is not neededby the current inputs of the computation the virtual supercomputer forapplication A is engaged in (i.e., A₀ is sufficient for acceleratingapplication A for its current input), then no message will be sent to A₁and no physical tile will be allocated for A₁. The present hypervisorsystem therefore allows on-demand increase of hardware resources for agiven virtual supercomputer, delaying the allocation of a physical tileuntil (if ever) it is actually needed. Similarly, we will see thatphysical tiles that have remained idle will be pre-empted, resulting inan incremental decrease of resources for a given virtual supercomputer.Incremental increase and decrease of resources is an essentialrequirement of ordinary software cloud computing; the present hardwarehypervisor system provides this feature for incremental provisioning ofhardware acceleration resources to applications.

FIG. 6 shows the activities when virtual tile A₀ contained in physicaltile P₂ finally sends a message to virtual tile A₁, which is not yetcontained in any physical tile. The local first level cache miss withinP₂ is handled by owner_(s) which is known to be responsible for A₁.Owner₁ asks the monitor unit for the best physical tile to allocate A₁in; the response is the empty physical tile P₃. A₁ is then allocated inP₃ by owner₁, i.e., owner₁ reads the initial state of virtual tile A₁from the hypervisor storage, reconfigures the empty tile P₃ to realizeA₁, and gets P₃ running. The mapping (A₁→P₃) is cached locally withinP₂. Also, P₂ is recorded as a sharer of the (A₁→P₃) mapping withinowner₁. Then, the message from A₀ to A₁ is delivered.

FIG. 7 shows the activities when virtual tile A₁ contained in physicaltile P₃ sends a message to virtual tile A₀ contained in physical tileP₂. The cache miss is handled by owner°. A₀ is already allocated in P₂;hence no reconfiguration activity is needed. The mapping (A₀→P₂) iscached locally P₃. Also, P₃ recorded as a sharer of the (A₀→P₂) mappingwithin owner°. Then, the message from A₁ to A₀ is delivered.

FIG. 8 shows the activities when virtual tile B_(—1) contained inphysical tile P₁ sends a message to virtual tile B₀, which is not yetcontained in any physical tile. The local first level cache miss forvirtual tile B₀ is handled by owner° which is responsible for B₀. Owner°asks the monitor unit for the best physical tile to allocate B₀ in. Themonitor unit responds with the physical tile P₃ currently containing thevirtual tile A₁ based on the Least Recently Used Tile replacement policy(assuming P₃ has been idle for some time). Owner° asks owner₁ to undothe (A₁→P₃) mapping, since owner₁ is the one responsible for virtualtile A₁. This is where the sharer list becomes useful: For the owner ofa given virtual tile v to de-allocate/undo a mapping (v→p) to a physicaltile p, the following steps are followed:

-   -   1. The owner of v invalidates the (v→p) mapping in the local        first level cache of each sharer physical tile that has the (vp)        mapping locally cached, and finally deletes its own (v→p)        mapping;    -   2. The owner of v stops the physical tile p at the next precise        interruption point, and saves the state/configuration of v in        hypervisor storage;        Going back to the example in FIG. 8:    -   P₂ is a sharer of the (A₁→P₃) mapping within owner₁. Thus, as a        consequence of step 1 above, the (A₁→P₃) local first level cache        entry in physical tile P₂ is deleted by owner₁. The (A₁→P₃)        mapping and its sharers are also deleted within owner₁.    -   As a consequence of step 2 above, P₃ is stopped and virtual tile        A₁'s state in P₃ is saved in hypervisor storage by owner_(s).

Finally,

-   -   Virtual tile A₁ becomes unmapped in owner_(s), and    -   Physical tile P₃ becomes empty.

Now a clean empty physical tile P₃ is available for allocating virtualtile B₀.

FIG. 9 continues to show the activities when virtual tile B⁻¹ containedin physical tile P₁ sends a message to virtual tile B₀, which is not yetcontained in any physical tile. The virtual tile B₀ is allocated inempty tile P₃ by owner₀, i.e., owner₀ reads the state and configurationof virtual tile B₀ from storage, reconfigures physical tile P₃ torealize virtual tile B₀, and starts P₃. The mapping (B₀→P₃) is locallycached in P₁. Also, P₁ is recorded as a sharer of the (B₀→P₃) mappingwithin owner₀. Then, the message from B₁ to B₀ is delivered.

Notice that the mapping (A₀→P₂) has remained in the local cache of P₃.If it remains unused, it will eventually be evicted from this localcache.

In the illustrative small example above, we described the effects ofmessage transmissions on the hypervisor system, as if the each messagewere transmitted following a global sequential order on the messagetransmissions. In reality, when two messages are independent, they willbe transmitted in any order or in parallel, and the tile pre-emption andcache coherence actions will also occur in parallel, thanks to themultiple owner units. We will describe the highly parallel hardwareimplementation of the hypervisor system in detail and also show how racecondition errors are avoided, in the sections below.

Primitive Hardware Building Blocks of the Hypervisor

At this point we incorporate by reference the co-pending, co-ownednon-provisional U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/296,232, entitled“Method and system for converting a single-threaded software programinto an application-specific supercomputer”. This patent applicationwill be called [Supercomputer] from this point on.

The present document describes a hypervisor system comprising virtualsupercomputers, while [Supercomputer] describes a method and system forcreating non-virtual (real) supercomputers; therefore, the presentdocument's subject is different. However, referring to [Supercomputer](i) clarifies and shortens the present hypervisor system's baselinehardware description, and also (ii) provides an important kind ofpreferred embodiment.

The present hypervisor system will work with any physical tiles, virtualtiles and virtual supercomputers wherein:

-   -   Each virtual tile communicates with an agreed-upon message        interface and message format, through designated        pre-communication 110 pins of the physical tile currently        configured to realize the virtual tile;    -   Each virtual supercomputer operates correctly regardless of        network latencies:        -   The hypervisor ensures that for any given pair of virtual            tiles v1 and v2, the messages from v1 to v2 will not be            reordered. Also, it ensures that each message that is sent            from v1 to v2 is eventually received by v2; messages are not            lost. But the delivery of a message from v1 to v2 may take            arbitrarily long in terms of wall clock time in a hypervisor            environment. Each virtual supercomputer should therefore            first be unit-tested in a real environment by artificially            introducing random network delays, before being deployed in            the hypervisor;    -   Each physical tile and virtual tiles support, through designated        control I/O pins of the physical tile:        -   Stopping the virtual tile currently being realized by the            physical tile at a precise message boundary point, where no            messages are only partially sent or only partially received            by the virtual tile;        -   Reading out the state of the stopped virtual tile;        -   Writing the saved state of a second virtual tile into the            physical tile; and        -   Restarting the second virtual tile from where it left off.

However, when the technology described in [Supercomputer] is combinedwith the present hypervisor, we obtain an important kind of specializedphysical tiles, virtual tiles, and virtual supercomputers such that:

-   -   Each design partition of a compiler-generated        application-specific supercomputer in [Supercomputer] becomes a        virtual tile within the hypervisor; and    -   The union chip for the design partitions in [Supercomputer]        becomes a physical tile within the hypervisor.        The combination of the technology in [Supercomputer] with the        present hypervisor system therefore yields a new cloud computing        system, wherein each software application is accelerated by a        virtual application-specific supercomputer, which is        automatically obtained from the said software application.        Further details of making use of the union chips generated by        [Supercomputer] as physical tiles, will be given in optimization        1 in the optimization section.

In an attempt to make the present document more self-contained, we willnow also briefly summarize the features from [Supercomputer] which arere-used in the present hypervisor system. These features arespecifically helpful for implementing the components of the presenthypervisor at a low hardware level; although an experienced hardwaredesigner may choose other techniques which will work equally well forthe same implementation.

-   -   The hardware hypervisor system of the present document will use        the same (non-virtual) hardware building blocks and the same I/O        signal interface conventions, including the software-hardware        communication protocol, as described at least in the paragraphs        [0037]-[0066], [0081]-[0087], [0148]-[0154], [0155]-[0167], and        Appendix A of [Supercomputer]. These include:        -   A FIFO interface handshaking specification, causing the            removal of a word from the front of the sending FIFO and the            addition of the said word to the back of the receiving FIFO            at the next rising clock edge, if and only if the request            output signal of the sending FIFO (meaning the sending FIFO            is not empty) and the acknowledge output signal of the            receiving FIFO (meaning the receiving FIFO is not full) are            both 1;        -   Variable length, multi word messages, with an end-of-data            bit signaling the last word;        -   A hardware component's master port consisting of a sending            FIFO interface (which sends a request) and a receiving FIFO            interface (which receives a response);        -   A hardware component's slave port consisting of a receiving            FIFO interface (which receives a request) and a sending FIFO            interface (which sends a response);        -   On-chip customized n input, m output incomplete butterfly            sub-networks, where messages are routed from a sub-network            input to a sub-network output designated by a destination            port field within the first word of the message (the            butterfly sub-network is incomplete in the sense that the            number of inputs and outputs need not be a power of two);        -   On-chip customized networks connected to n master ports and            m slave ports, formed from a pair of incomplete            sub-networks:            -   A forward sub-network for sending a request from the                sending FIFO interface of master port to the receiving                FIFO interface of a slave port; and            -   A reverse sub-network for sending a response from the                sending FIFO interface of a slave port to the receiving                FIFO interface of a master port;        -   Chips and hardware modules built from components, networks            and external communication devices:            -   Components include finite state machines (FSMs) with one                or more FIFO interfaces;            -   External communication devices include an interface to                PCI Express, an interface to fast serial communication                cables, an interface to wide busses between chips on the                rack module, with differential signaling, and an                interface to DDRn DRAM units outside the chip;                -   Within the conventions of the present document and                    [Supercomputer], a component must always go through                    a network to communicate with another component. But                    point to point networks can later be optimized as                    straight-through wires;        -   Request routing within a forward sub-network based on the            destination port field (identifying the responding            component) within the first word of a message;        -   Response routing within a reverse sub-network based on the            source port field (identifying the requesting component) in            the first word of a message;        -   Technique for accessing multiple FIFO interfaces            simultaneously in a single state in a finite state machine,            correctly handling the cases where one FIFO interface            immediately transmits data, while another FIFO interface is            delayed;        -   Technique for issuing multiple outstanding requests in            pipelined fashion and receiving responses out of order, by            using a tag field to match incoming responses to outstanding            requests (as exemplified by this sequence of message            transmissions of a hardware component: (i) Send request 1            with tag 1; (ii) Send request 2 with tag 2; (iii) Response 2            with tag 2 comes back; (iv) Response 1 with tag 1 comes            back)        -   Software API routines for low-level message communication            between the software application and the supercomputer which            aims to accelerate it;        -   Incomplete hypercube cross-chip networks (“incomplete”            meaning: a hypercube network where the number of nodes need            not be a power of two);        -   Method for partitioning a flat, non-partitioned            application-specific supercomputer design into multiple            chips or modules;        -   Method for creating a union chip which is capable of            realizing any of the partitions based on the configuration            parameters provided to the union chip.

Starting from the flat non-partitioned design of the hypervisor, to bedescribed in detail below, the design partitioning and chip unioningtechnique described at least in the paragraphs [00169]-[00190] andAppendix K of [Supercomputer] will also be used to create the “unionchip” of the hardware hypervisor design, a chip that is capable ofrealizing any partition of the partitioned hypervisor design. This unionchip will be called the cloud building block chip. The entire cloud datacenter will consist of copies of the cloud building block chip inhierarchical enclosures (such as rack modules and racks), wherein thecopies of the cloud building block chip will possibly differ only in thetypes of physical tiles contained in it.

An example of design partitioning and chip unioning, as it relates tocreating a scalable hypervisor, will be given in paragraphs[0050]-[0052].

Key Hardware Components of the Hypervisor The Networks and Components

Armed with the basic hardware building blocks of [Supercomputer], wewill now describe the hardware hypervisor system in detail. FIG. 10provides a legend for the symbols occurring in the hardware schematicswithin the present document. Referring to the top level hypervisorsystem schematic in FIG. 11, the specific networks in the flat,non-partitioned hypervisor system are listed below, in the format:

Name of Network:

-   -   (component type having a master port of the network) to        (component type having a slave port of the network).

Allocation/Deallocation:

-   -   Owner unit to owner unit. In order pre-empt a physical tile p, a        first owner tells a second owner to de-allocate a virtual tile v        already allocated to a physical tile p. Also, using the same        network, an owner tells itself to allocate a virtual tile v to        an empty physical tile p. In addition, using the same network,        an owner tells itself to drain (ensure the delivery of) all the        undelivered messages emanating from the last physical tile v was        allocated to, to ensure messages from v are not re-ordered in        the networks when v starts working on a different physical tile.

Control:

-   -   Owner unit to physical tile harness. Using this network, an        owner unit stops a physical tile and reads its state, or writes        the new state of a physical tile and starts it. An owner unit        can also attempt to drain (ensure the delivery of) all currently        undelivered messages emanating from a virtual tile.

Lookup:

-   -   Physical tile harness to owner unit. A physical tile harness        requests the physical tile corresponding to a virtual tile from        its owner unit, to be able to cache the mapping locally for        re-use later. Using the same network, a physical tile harness        also notifies the owner of virtual tile v, that it is        abandoning/deleting a locally cached mapping (v→p), where p is a        physical tile.

Communication:

-   -   Physical tile harness to physical tile harness. This is for        application-level communication messages within a virtual        supercomputer itself. Each physical tile harness has one master        port and one slave port attached to the communication network.        -   A physical tile harness accepts an outbound message from a            physical tile and sends it out on the sending FIFO of its            master port of the communication network. It receives an            acknowledgement (confirming that the message got to its            destination physical tile harness) from the receiving FIFO            of the same master port. Outbound messages are sent and            acknowledgements come back in pipelined manner: The physical            tile harness does not wait for an acknowledgement for a            first outbound message before sending a second outbound            message.        -   A physical tile harness receives an inbound application            message from the receiving FIFO of its slave port of the            communication network. This message is delivered as an            inbound message to the attached physical tile. The physical            tile harness also sends an acknowledgement to the sending            physical tile harness, using the sending FIFO of the same            slave port.    -   The application virtual tiles are unaware of the        acknowledgements, which are not used during the normal operation        of the hypervisor when there are cache hits. These        acknowledgements are used by the hypervisor solely to ensure        that each pending, undelivered inbound and outbound message        pertaining to a particular physical tile is delivered to its        destination, before the virtual tile contained within the        physical tile is pre-empted/deallocated from that physical tile        and later reallocated to another physical tile. This mechanism        is required for preventing loss or reordering of messages.

Replacement Tile Selection:

-   -   Owner unit to monitor. An owner unit asks the monitor for a        physical tile to pre-empt. The monitor will typically respond        with a least recently used physical tile, assuming it is        implementing an LRU replacement policy. Also, an owner notifies        the monitor through this network, that a physical tile has been        completely reconfigured.

Statistics:

-   -   Physical tile to monitor. Each physical tile provides periodic        signals about its activities (e.g., whether it was idle or        working within the last time interval) to the monitor unit.

Outbound Pre-Communication n:

-   -   (point to point), for each physical tile n. Physical tile to the        attached physical tile harness.

Inbound Pre-Communication n:

-   -   (point to point), for each physical tile n. Physical tile        harness to the attached physical tile.    -   These networks carry application-level messages for the virtual        tile located inside a physical tile, making the virtual tile        unaware that it is running on physical tile. The        pre-communication networks consist of a unidirectional inbound        channel for application messages being received by the physical        tile and a unidirectional outbound channel for application        messages being sent by the physical tile.

Pre-Control n (Point to Point), for Each Physical Tile n:

-   -   Physical tile harness to the attached physical tile. Used for        passing commands to shut down the tile and read its state, and        also to write the state of the tile and start the tile.

Again referring to FIG. 11, the top level component types in thehypervisor system are listed below, in the format:

-   -   Name of component type        -   Network x connected to this component, facing other            components of type y (type of port by which the present            component is connected to network x).        -   . . .    -   Physical tile harness n, n=0, 1, . . . , N−1:    -   (shown as PH₀ . . . PH_(N-1) in FIG. 11)        -   Lookup network facing owner units (master),        -   Communication network facing other physical tile harnesses            (master and slave),        -   Control network facing owner units (slave),        -   Pre-control network facing the attached physical tile            (master),        -   Inbound pre-communication (unidirectional master) and            outbound pre-communication (unidirectional slave) networks            facing the attached physical tile. These are point to point            networks.    -   Owner unit m, m=0, 1, . . . , M−1        -   Lookup network facing physical tile harnesses (slave)        -   eplacement tile selection network facing the monitor            (master)        -   Allocation/deallocation network facing the owners (one            master, and one slave port to this network)        -   Control network facing physical tile harnesses (master)    -   Monitor unit        -   Replacement tile selection network, facing the owners            (slave)        -   Statistics network facing the physical tiles (unidirectional            slave)    -   Physical tile n, n=0, 1, . . . , N−1: (shown as P₀ . . . P_(N-1)        in FIG. 11)        -   Outbound pre-communication (unidirectional master) and            inbound pre-communication (unidirectional slave)            point-to-point networks facing the attached physical tile            harness (these networks are a pair of sending and receiving            channels)        -   Pre-control network facing the physical tile harness (slave)        -   Statistics network facing the monitor unit (unidirectional            master)    -   Application placeholder tiles:        -   These behave exactly like a physical tile except that they            only need to perform message exchanges with a software            application: They exchange messages with a specific software            application on the host processor through a set of PCI            Express I/O pins.

Of course, the flat design described above and in FIG. 11 is likely toexceed the area of a single chip, and must be partitioned into multiplechips. A cloud building block chip, which is capable of realizing anypartition of the design (based on the values in its configurationmemory) is obtained by applying chip unioning [Supercomputer] to thepartitioned flat design, is given in FIG. 12. In this example the unionchip contains up to 4 physical tiles, up to one owner, up to one PciEconnection, up to one monitor, and n hypercube links for use in ahypervisor system with up to 2^(n) cloud building block chips.

A union chip, such as the cloud building block chip in FIG. 12, containsthe maximum number of components of each type in each partition. Forexample, if the monitor unit (of which there is only one copy in theflat design of FIG. 11) is placed in partition 0 in a hypervisor systemwith multiple partitions, the monitor unit will be present in all copiesof the union chip, but will be connected only when the union chip isconfigured (via its configuration memory) to realize partition 0. Whenthe union chip is configured to realize any partition other than 0, themonitor unit is disconnected and turned off for reducing leakage power.Creating one single union chip where possible, can reduce mask expensesas well as chip testing expenses when releasing an ASIC implementation,although each individual partition will require less area than the unionchip.

Let us summarize the design partitioning and chip unioning technique of[Supercomputer], and show with an example how a collection of unionchips work together to realize the function of a flat non-partitioneddesign of a cloud computing data center: Assume we are given, for thesake of an example, an original flat design of a small data center, with14 physical tiles (including 2 application placeholder tiles with PciEconnections), 3 owners, and one monitor. Since only a small number ofcomponents will fit in each chip, after design partitioning and chipunioning, assume that this flat design leads to 4 cloud building blockchips 0,1,2, and 3, each with:

-   -   Up to 4 physical tiles per chip:        -   The 14 physical tiles are distributed thus: 4 physical tiles            each in chips 0,1; and 3 physical tiles each in chips 2,3;    -   Up to 1 owner per chip:        -   The 3 owners are in chips 0,1,2, respectively;    -   Up to 1 monitor per chip:        -   The only monitor is in chip 0;    -   Up to 1 PciE connection per chip        -   The 2 PciE connections are in chips 0 and 2, respectively.

As an example of message routing using the cloud building block chips,here is how owner unit 2 in chip 2, sends a tile_request (“give me aphysical tile to pre-empt”) message over the replacement tile selectionnetwork, to the monitor unit in chip 0. Gray code versions of chipnumbers 0,1,2, and 3 are used (0=Gray 00 1=Gray 01 2=Gray 11 3=Gray 10),since Gray codes are more convenient for the purpose of deterministichypercube routing, A scalable hypercube network connects the cloudbuilding block chips.

-   -   Owner unit in chip 2 (Gray code 11) sends a request message over        the local replacement tile selection partial network, to the        local I/O controller of chip 2; The request message is routed        correctly, by virtue of the routing tables on each leg of the        message's journey; The routing tables are part of the        configuration parameters of each union chip;    -   In the I/O controller of chip 2 (Gray code 11), the tile request        is sent to the next chip (chip 3, Gray code 10) on the        deterministic greedy hypercube routing path leading to chip 0        (Gray code 00). The deterministic greedy hypercube routing path        from 11 to 00 is 11→10→00, using Gray code numbering;    -   The I/O controller in chip 3 (with Gray code 10) receives the        message, realizes the message is not yet at its destination chip        0, and then sends the message to the next chip on the routing        path, which is the final destination chip 0 (Gray code 00);    -   The I/O controller in chip 0 (Gray code 00) receives the        message, realizes the message has reached its final destination        chip, and routes the tile_request message over the local        replacement tile selection partial network to the monitor unit        in chip 0.

The message has thus been successfully sent from owner unit 2 in chip 2,to the monitor unit in chip 0.

The net result is that the collection of the 4 cloud building blockchips displays behavior identical to the original flat design with 14physical tiles, 3 owners, 1 monitor and 2 PCI Express connections, asdescribed above. More details of the design partitioning and chipunioning algorithms are described in [Supercomputer].

The “hypervisor storage” for keeping the saved state of virtual tiles isrealized with off-chip DRAM units. For saving and restoring tile states,it suffices for each owner unit to access the local DRAM unit closest tothe chip containing the owner unit. We have not included the DRAM DDRncontrollers in the figures, for simplifying the figures, although eachcloud building block chip will have at least one such controller. TheDDRn controllers in each chip are connected to DRAM units packaged in,e.g., DIMMs (Dual Inline Memory Modules) on the board. The physicaltiles implementing the virtual supercomputers may also share differentregions of the same local DRAM resources on the board.

We have used many different networks for different functions in thisdesign as a “separation of concerns” simplification, as in softwaredesign practice. Of course, the number of networks can be reduced byresource sharing, for example, by using (optimization 5, starting on p.145 of [Supercomputer]) repeatedly, or by creating virtual networks eachwith their separate input and output FIFOs, where the virtual networksare implemented on a single common physical network or bus connectingthe hardware components.

Message Formats within the Hypervisor System

In this section we will describe the message formats used in thehypervisor system. We will start with an example of a message:

-   -   Send Request (lookup network): Source=(requesting physical        tile=me) Tag=(t1=new tag) Dest=(owner of v=z)        Opcode=access_request Vtile=(virtual tile to look up=v)

The message format first indicates whether the message is being sent orreceived by the present hardware unit, and whether the message is arequest or a response, and further identifies the network where themessage is sent or received. The remaining part of the message issequence of field specifications of the form:Field=(explanation=variable) when the value of the variable is used forcreating the message field or for checking the value of the messageagainst an expected value, or of the form Field=(variable=explanation)when the message field (which already has a value in this case) isassigned to the variable. “me” appearing in messages identifies thenumber of the current hardware unit sending or receiving the message.Variable names have local scope within their message exchangedescription, unless otherwise specified. The Field=(explanation) form isalso used, in case no variables are needed. We will explain the messagefields below:

-   -   Source=(requester unit)        -   The number identifying the hardware unit on the specified            network which sends requests and receives responses; i.e.,            the requesting unit number. Notice that in a pair of            messages consisting of a request and a corresponding            response, the Source field of the response message is the            same as the Source field of the request message. I.e., the            Source field always refers to the requester. Given that a            response is sent from the responder to the requester, the            Source field is the “destination” of the response message.    -   Tag=(outstanding request id tag)    -   The unique tag to identify which outstanding request this is,        when software pipelining is done so that there are multiple        outstanding requests, and responses can come back out of order.        A tag field is not required when there is only one outstanding        request at a time or when responses always come back in order.        Notice that in a pair of messages consisting of a request and a        corresponding response, the Tag field of the response is always        the same as it is in the request. “New tag” appearing in a Tag        field that is part of a request message being sent, means a tag        that is not currently being used by another outstanding request.    -   Dest=(Responder unit)        -   The number of a responder unit on the network, which            receives requests and sends responses. The Dest field is            present only in request messages.    -   Opcode=operation code        -   The constant representing the operation to be performed by            the request or response message.    -   Param1=(first parameter)    -   Param2=(second parameter)    -   . . .        -   Param1, Param2, . . . constitute the optional parameters of            the message.

Note that ceil(log₂ (number of possible values of the field)) bits areneeded to encode a field in a message, within the context of themessages described in the present document. In particular, when there isonly one possible value for a field, 0 bits are required to encode thefield, and therefore such a field will not physically appear in themessage. For example, the Opcode field in the single operation code casewill not be physically present in the messages; in this case, the Opcodeis provided only as a convenience for the reader.

Long messages will be broken up into a sequence of words with anend-of-data bit=0, ending with a word whose end-of-data bit=1, as in[Supercomputer]; this variable length encoding does not change themeaning of the message. The order of the fields within a message, andthe particular binary values for representing constant fields, are notimportant, as long as a precise contract for the message format isfollowed throughout the design.

The Reconfigurable Physical Tile

The physical tile is a hardware component that can be reconfigured toimplement one or more virtual tiles of one or more virtualsupercomputers within the hypervisor system.

Referring to FIG. 11 (where physical tiles are labeled P₀, P₁, . . . ,P_(N-1)), each physical tile has the following ports:

-   -   A master port of the outbound pre-communication network, facing        the attached physical tile harness. This unidirectional master        ports sends requests only, it does not receive responses.    -   A slave port of the inbound pre-communication network, facing        the attached physical tile harness. This unidirectional slave        port receives requests (originally emanating from other physical        tiles) only, it does not send responses.    -   A (bidirectional) slave port of the pre-control network facing        the attached physical tile harness.    -   A master port of the statistics network facing the monitor. This        unidirectional master port sends requests only, it does not        receive responses.

The physical tile's internal operation is defined mainly by the virtualtile it is currently configured to implement. The hypervisor system doesnot need to understand the internal operation of the virtual tilecurrently being implemented, as long as the virtual tile complies withthe requirements described in paragraph [0041]. In this section, we willspecify the following key behavior of a physical tile relevant to theoperation of the hypervisor system:

-   -   An I/O interface for stopping, reading the state of, writing the        state of, and restarting a physical tile, through the physical        tile's control I/O pins, in order to make the physical tile        implement any one of the virtual tiles it is able to implement;        and    -   A message format and message I/O interface, by which a virtual        tile sends messages through the enclosing physical tile's        outbound pre-communication I/O pins, and receives messages        through the enclosing physical tile's inbound pre-communication        I/O pins.

Slave Port of Pre-Control Network Facing the Attached Physical TileHarness

The physical tile's slave port of the pre-control network facing thephysical tile harness accepts the following requests and sends back thefollowing responses:

-   -   Receive Request (pre-control): Opcode=shutdown_and_read_state    -   Send Response (pre-control): Opcode=read_state_response        Tilestate=(state data)        -   Upon receiving the shutdown_and_read_state request, the            physical tile waits until the enclosed virtual tile reaches            a state where the virtual tile is expecting inbound            pre-communication input but the input queue is empty (e.g.,            for a virtual tile which frequently reads input messages,            this can be achieved if the physical tile checks for the            presence of the shutdown_and_read_state request only when            its inbound pre-communication input FIFO is empty). Then,            the physical tile waits further if needed, until a cycle is            reached where there is no outgoing message being sent by the            enclosed virtual tile, and then stops the enclosed virtual            tile (e.g., by simply stopping the global clock of the            virtual tile, or by making the entire virtual tile enter a            special reconfiguration state through an agreed-upon            handshaking protocol).        -   Then, the entire state of the virtual tile contained within            the physical tile (both the execution state such as            registers and memories, and the configuration SRAM bits            indicating the identity of the current virtual tile), is            read (e.g., shifted out through one or more scan chains            while the global clock is stopped, or received from the            virtual tile now in the special reconfiguration state) and            returned as the response to the shutdown_and_read_state            request.    -   Receive Request (pre-control): Opcode=write_state        Tilestate=(state data)    -   Send Response (pre-control): Opcode=acknowledge        -   The physical tile should be in the stopped condition when            this request is received.        -   This request is processed by writing both the execution            state (registers and memories) and configuration SRAMs            indicating the identity of the virtual tile from the “state            data” (e.g., by using one or more scan chains while the            global clock is stopped, or by sending state data to the            virtual tile now in the special reconfiguration state), and            then, once the entire state has been written, starting the            enclosed virtual tile (e.g., by starting its global clock,            or making it exit the reconfiguration state). Then, the            physical tile exits the stopped condition, and starts            running, continuing the execution and message exchanges of            the new virtual tile that was just restored.

At system reset time, each physical tile is in the stopped condition,except for application placeholder tiles (described around paragraph[0070]) which are running and are ready for any message exchanges withtheir respective software applications.

Pre-conditions of shutdown_ndreadstate: When the shutdown_and_read_staterequest is received by a physical tile p currently running virtual tilev, all local first level cache entries (vp) within physical tileharnesses in the hypervisor system, pointing to the present physicaltile p, should be already invalidated, and any remaining incomingmessages should have been received by the physical tile harness attachedto the present physical tile. Notice that, as it will be seen in theowner unit section below, once a local cache entry (v→p) is invalidated,further messages to virtual tile v will be blocked until the owner unitof v completes the de-allocation of (v→p) and starts processing thewaiting access_request commands for v, to reallocate v in possibly a newphysical tile.

Post-conditions of shutdown_and_read_state: Notice that after processinga shutdown_and_read_state request: all pending incoming messages tovirtual tile v on physical tile p are consumed (no incoming messages areleft in the network); and further incoming messages to v are blocked inthe owner of v. But the outgoing messages sent by the virtual tile v onphysical tile p may remain undelivered to their destinations; theseoutgoing messages may sit in the network for an arbitrary time. Theseoutgoing messages should be delivered to their destination virtualtiles, before the virtual tile v is reallocated to a different physicaltile p′≠p, to prevent re-ordering of messages coming out from virtualtile v. Note that the networks of the preferred embodiment usedeterministic routing and guarantee that the messages from one giveninput port to one given output port will not be reordered in thenetwork; but there is no guarantee regarding the order of delivery ofmessages from different input ports. Hence, when a virtual tile ismigrated to a new physical tile, a drain command is required, to ensurethe delivery of the pending undelivered messages that emanated from thesame virtual tile, while it was allocated to its prior physical tile.

We already provided above a method for shutting down a virtual tile v(currently on physical tile p) which frequently reads its input, bysimply honoring shutdown requests only when the virtual tile's normalinbound pre-communication input FIFO is empty. For shutting down avirtual tile v (currently on physical tile p) which rarely reads itsinput, we propose another method:

-   -   An extra “input buffer FIFO” is introduced internally between        the inbound pre-communication network and the actual input FIFO        interface of the virtual tile. The shutdown_and_read_state        request sent to p can again be honored when the inbound        pre-communication input FIFO of p is empty. But in this case,        pending unprocessed input messages may be sitting in the input        buffer FIFO, at the instant the shutdown request is honored. The        input buffer FIFO will be saved and restored as part of virtual        tile v's state. The pending unprocessed messages in the “input        buffer FIFO” will then be read before the regular inbound        pre-communication network input FIFO, when the virtual tile is        awakened/restarted after a new message arrives at it. In case no        messages arrive to wake up a virtual tile with a non-empty        “input buffer FIFO” for a long time, an artificial dummy message        should be sent to this virtual tile to wake it up, to ensure        that any unprocessed message waiting in the input buffer FIFO is        eventually processed.

Master Port of Statistics Network Facing the Monitor

A physical tile's unidirectional master port of the statistics networkfacing the monitor, periodically issues the following requests:

-   -   Send Request (statistics): Opcode=status_update Ptile=(my        physical tile) Status=(I am working∥I am not working)        -   Each physical tile periodically sends status update requests            to the monitor unit. The monitor unit collects these            statistics from all physical tiles and makes decisions on            the specific tiles to pre-empt.        -   See the monitor unit description, regarding a            hardware-efficient token-ring implementation of the            statistics network.    -   No response is needed; statistics is a unidirectional network.

Master Port of Outbound Pre-Communication Network Facing the AttachedPhysical Tile Harness; Slave Port of Inbound Pre-Communication NetworkFacing the Attached Physical Tile Harness

A physical tile's unidirectional master port of the outboundpre-communication network, and unidirectional slave port of the inboundpre-communication network, where both networks face the attachedphysical tile, accomplish the inter-virtual-tile communications withinthe application-specific virtual supercomputer. Both outgoing andincoming messages have the same message format:

-   -   Send Request (outbound pre-communication): Opcode=communicate        Vdest=(virtual destination tile) Vsource=(virtual source tile)        Payload=(application message payload)    -   Receive Request (inbound pre-communication): Opcode=communicate        Vdest=(virtual destination tile) Vsource=(virtual source tile)        Payload=(application message payload)

Each virtual tile implemented on a reconfigurable physical tile is madeto believe (with the help of the hypervisor infrastructure) that it iscommunicating natively with other virtual tiles of the same virtualsupercomputer, as if the supercomputer were implemented with native,non-virtual hardware. In reality virtual tiles are allocated to physicaltiles on demand, and then possibly pre-empted (de-allocated from thephysical tile), for example, after the virtual tile has remained idlefor a sufficiently long time. The virtual destination tile within such amessage is needed, for looking up the corresponding physical destinationtile number. The virtual source tile within such a message is alsoneeded, for keeping track of any undelivered messages emanating fromthis virtual source tile. Therefore, a pre-communication network messagefor inter-virtual-tile communication, should meet the followingpre-communication message format requirement:

-   -   The virtual destination tile should be located in fixed        agreed-upon bit positions of the message; and    -   The virtual source tile should be located in fixed agreed-upon        bit positions of the message;        uniformly for all virtual supercomputers.        This completes the description of the reconfigurable physical        tile.

Application Placeholder Physical Tiles

Assuming the local virtual tiles of a given virtual supercomputerperforming the real hardware functions are numbered 0, 1, 2, . . . ,n−1, it is convenient to create a new local virtual tile of the samevirtual supercomputer, numbered −1, whose only job is to relay messagesto and from the software application, which this virtual supercomputeraccelerates. This way, messages exchanged between the local virtualtiles and the software application do not need to be treated as aspecial case with respect to message routing. Given a hypervisor systemimplementing m (software application, virtual supercomputer) pairs,using m general purpose commodity host processors each running asoftware application that is accelerated by a virtual supercomputer, wecan create mapplication placeholder virtual tiles, and permanently mapthem to fixed physical application placeholder tiles within thehypervisor, that will not be de-allocated. Each application placeholderphysical tile will communicate point-to-point with a PCI Expressexternal communication device that leads to the correct host processorrunning the corresponding software application. Thus, when a hostapplication sends a message to a local virtual tile of its virtualsupercomputer, this message enters the hypervisor system at thededicated PCI Express connection and application placeholder physicaltile tied to this host processor. A message sent by the softwareapplication will appear to be coming from local virtual tile −1. When alocal virtual tile numbered 0, 1, . . . of the virtual supercomputerwishes to send a message to its software application, it will send themessage to its application placeholder local virtual tile −1, which willin turn forward the message to the software application over the PCIExpress connection.

Physical Tile Harness Unit

Referring to the schematic in FIG. 13, in this section we will describethe physical tile harness unit, including its internal finite statemachines.

Internal memory state: The internal memories and registers of a physicaltile harness are:

-   -   A local first level cache, called L1, which contains mappings        (v→p) where v is a virtual tile and p is a physical tile that        currently implements the virtual tile. I.e., the cache L1 is        addressed with a virtual tile v, and a physical tile L1 [v] is        returned as the data. If the virtual tile v is not present in        the L1, L1[v] is defined to be NULL.        -   Rapid pre-emption activities and network contention can            leave messages from virtual supercomputers of more than one            application in the FIFO queues of a physical tile harness.            Even messages whose source virtual tile has already been            deallocated/preempted can exist in the system. Therefore,            for simplifying the cache coherency design and reducing the            race conditions, the local first level cache of a physical            tile harness is designed to be addressed by the global            virtual tiles of any of the virtual supercomputers in the            hypervisor system (a global virtual tile v is a pair            (application id, local virtual tile number within the            virtual supercomputer), as already described in paragraph            [0025]). The isolation of virtual supercomputers from each            other is addressed separately in the optimizations section,            in optimization 6.        -   A set-associative cache design with high associativity is            suitable for this cache, although other implementations are            also possible.    -   A set of virtual tiles, called lockedSource: A message's virtual        source tile is in lockedSource if and only if that message        (originally coming from a physical tile containing that virtual        source tile over the outbound pre-communication network) has        entered, but has not yet exited the “outbound communication        request FSM” of the physical tile harness. In case this FSM is        not software pipelined, so that the lockedSource set has at most        one element, a simple register which contains the locked virtual        tile when the set is full, and which contains NULL when the set        is empty, is sufficient for implementing this set. Otherwise,        any technique for implementing a set in hardware can be used.    -   A set of virtual tiles, called lockedDest: A virtual destination        tile is in lockedDest if and only if a message (from the        outbound pre-communication network) going to that virtual        destination tile has entered, but has not yet exited the        “outbound communication request FSM” of the physical tile        harness. In case this FSM is not software pipelined, so that the        set has at most one element, a simple register is sufficient for        implementing this set. Otherwise, any technique for implementing        a set in hardware can be used.    -   A map from virtual tiles to counters, called outstandingByDest:        given a virtual destination tile v1, this map returns the number        of current application communication messages that have been        sent out from the present physical tile harness to that virtual        destination tile v1, but have not yet arrived at the        corresponding physical tile harness containing v1. Each time an        application communication message with virtual destination tile        v1 is sent out, outstandingByDest[v1] is incremented. Each time        an acknowledgement confirming receipt of an application        communication message with virtual destination tile destination        v1 comes back, outstandingByDest[v1] is decremented. Zero-valued        counter entries are not stored in the map (the absence of an        entry in the map signifies the entry is zero). At the time a        counter entry is decremented to zero, it is deleted from the        map; hence the map is self-erasing.    -   A map from virtual tiles to counters, called        outstandingBySource: given a virtual source tile v1, this map        returns the number of current application communication messages        that have been sent out from that virtual source tile v1, but        have not yet arrived at the corresponding physical tile harness        containing the destination virtual tile of the message. Each        time an application communication message with virtual source        tile v1 is sent, outstandingBySource[v1] is incremented. Each        time an acknowledgement arrives, confirming receipt of an        application communication message with virtual source tile v1,        outstandingBySource[v1] is decremented.        -   Since manipulating outstanding message counters is not on            the critical path for sending messages between virtual tiles            during normal hypervisor operation, these maps can be            implemented as a multi-ported and/or bank-interleaved deeply            pipelined cache using SRAMs. The cache should be capable of            performing in-place increment and decrement operations. When            both an increment and a decrement request for the same            virtual tile arrive at the same cycle, the two requests can            be optimized as a no-op. A cache entry should be invalidated            when it is decremented to zero. When a message needs to be            sent, but no free counter is available in the addressed            counter cache set, the message waits until a counter within            the set is decremented to zero and becomes free. When an            addressed counter is about to exceed the maximum counter            value (because there are too many outstanding messages), the            outgoing message also waits until enough acknowledges come            back from prior messages involving the same virtual tile.

As it will be described below, the control FSM and the outboundcommunication request FSM of the physical tile harness both share (i)the local virtual tile to physical tile cache called L1 (ii) thelockedDest and lockedSource sets of virtual tiles. The outboundcommunication request FSM, the outbound communication response FSM, aswell as the control FSM share the outstandingByDest andoutstandingBySource counter arrays. The accesses to these shared datastructures must be made to appear atomic, which can be achieved by amulti-ported design and/or a network for arbitration.

The physical tile harness includes the following internal finite statemachines (FSMs), which will each be described separately.

Outbound Communication Request FSM: Outbound Communication Response FSM:

The Outbound Communication Request FSM has the Following FIFO Interfaces

-   -   The sending FIFO interface of the master port of the        communication network facing the other physical tile harnesses:        this FIFO interface is used for sending application        communication messages to another physical tile harness unit.        -   Notice that the outbound communication request FSM is            connected to the sending FIFO of the master port of the            communication network, and the outbound communication            response FSM is connected to the receiving FIFO of the same            master port. Thus, each FSM is responsible for one half of            the master port of the communication network (shown as ½ M            in FIG. 13).    -   The receiving FIFO interface of the slave port of the outbound        pre-communication network facing the attached physical tile.        This unidirectional slave port receives requests only; it does        not send back responses.    -   The bidirectional master port of the lookup network facing owner        units (which consists of a sending FIFO interface for requests,        and a receiving FIFO interface for responses): This master port        is used for sending access_request commands for the looking up        the physical destination tile corresponding to a virtual        destination tile, which is not present in the local first level        cache of the present physical tile harness. This network is also        used for abandon requests notifying the owner unit of a virtual        tile v, that a local first level cache L1 entry (v→p) is being        deleted/abandoned by the present physical tile harness.

The Outbound Communication Response FSM has the Following FIFOInterfaces

-   -   Receiving FIFO interface of the master port to the communication        network. This is used for receiving acknowledgement messages        indicating that a message reached its destination physical tile        harness.

The “Outbound communication request FSM” performs the following stepsrepeatedly, in an unending loop:

-   -   The FSM waits for an input message to the receiving FIFO of the        unidirectional slave port of the outbound pre-communication        network facing the physical tile. The input message will be of        the form:        -   Receive Request (outbound pre-communication):            Opcode=communicate Vdest=(v=virtual destination tile)            Vsource=(v_src=virtual source tile) Payload=(m=the            application message payload)    -   The virtual source virtual tile v_src and virtual destination        tile v are locked. The virtual destination tile v is also looked        up in the local first level cache, L1, mapping virtual to        physical tiles:        -   Atomically do: p=L1[v]; add v to LockedDest; add v_src to            LockedSource; Locking the virtual destination tile v            prevents an incoming invalidate v request from executing.            Locking the virtual source tile v_src tells the logic to            drain messages, that there is at least one unsent message            from v_src.    -   If v is not present in the local cache (p==NULL),        -   The number of the unique owner unit z responsible for the            virtual destination tile v is computed with a hash            algorithm. The message            -   Send Request (lookup): Source=(requesting physical tile                harness=me) Tag=(t/=new tag) Dest=(owner of v=z)                Opcode=access_request Vtile=(virtual tile to look up=v)        -   is sent to the owner unit z over the master port of the            lookup network facing owner units.        -   Then, the response:            -   Receive Response (lookup): Source=(same source as in the                request=me) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t1)                Opcode=access_response Ptile=(p=the physical tile v is                now mapped to)        -   is received from the owner unit of v over the lookup network            again from the same master port, where p is the physical            destination tile for the virtual tile v. Notice that the            owner unit may have just pre-empted and reconfigured the            physical tile p if necessary, to make v become mapped to p.            Or alternatively, v may already be mapped to p in the owner            unit of v. Finally, the mapping (v→p) is added to the local            first level cache, L1, of the present physical tile harness.            -   Atomically do: L1[v]=p    -   At this point, if there was a cache miss in the local first        level cache, it has already been processed. p, the physical tile        where virtual tile v is located, is now known.    -   Since the message to the virtual destination tile v will now        definitely go out, outstandingByDest[v] is incremented.        outstandingBySource[v_src] is also incremented, where v_src is        the source virtual tile of the present outbound application        communication message. The destination virtual tile v and source        virtual tile v_src are then unlocked (v is removed from        lockedDest and v_src is removed from lockedSource), indicating        that the processing for the current message is complete. All        these data structure accesses are done atomically. The message        is sent out from the sending FIFO of the master port of the        communication network facing other physical tile harnesses as:        -   Send Request (communication): Source=(requesting physical            tile harness=me) Dest=(physical destination tile harness=p)            Opcode=communicate Vdest=(virtual destination tile=v)            Vsource=(virtual source tile=v_src) Payload=(the application            message payload=m)    -   An arbitrary delay after sending the outbound communication        message request, an acknowledgement is received through the        receiving FIFO of the master port of the communication network,        by the separate outbound communication response FSM:        -   Receive Response (communication): Source=(requesting            physical tile harness=me) Opcode=communication_acknowledge            Vdest=(virtual destination tile=v) Vsource=(virtual source            tile=v_src)        -   Communication acknowledgements can come back out of order,            which offers latitude in designing the communication            acknowledgement sub-network. The message ordering            requirements of the hypervisor are not violated, since such            communication acknowledgements are not visible to the            virtual supercomputers, and are used only for checking if            the number of outgoing communication requests is equal to            the number of incoming communication acknowledgements.        -   The sole action of the separate outbound communication            response FSM is to atomically decrement the            outstandingBySource[v_src] and outstandingByDest[v]            counters. The incoming acknowledgement message is discarded.    -   If a cache miss occurred while searching for v in the local        first level cache, L1, and the selected cache set was almost        full, an abandon transaction is attempted in order to make space        in this cache set, as follows:        -   The following test and entry selection is done atomically:            if the addressed cache set is still almost full, an entry            (v′→p′) in the set (where v′≠ v), such that there are zero            undelivered messages to v′ (outstandingByDest[v′] is zero)            is selected, if there is such an entry.        -   If the cache set is almost full and an entry (v′p′) could be            chosen,            -   The following request is sent to the owner unit of v′:                -   Send Request (lookup): Source=(requesting physical                    tile harness=me) Tag=(t2=new tag) Dest=(owner of v′)                    Opcode=abandon Vtile=(virtual tile to abandon=v)                    Ptile=(the present physical tile v′ is mapped top')            -   If the mapping (v′→p′) exists in the owner of v′, and                the current physical tile (passed in the Source field of                the abandon request sent to the owner) is a sharer of                the (v′→p′) map entry in the owner of v′, a (positive)                acknowledgement is sent back from the owner to the                present physical tile harness.                -   Receive Response (lookup): Source=(same source as in                    the request=me) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t2)                    Opcode=acknowledge            -   In this case, the abandon attempt is successful. (v′→p′)                is (atomically) removed from the local cache L1 within                the present physical tile harness.            -   Otherwise, a negative acknowledgement is sent back from                the owner of v′ to the present physical tile harness.                -   Receive Response (lookup): Source=(same source as in                    the request=me) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t2)                    Opcode=negative_acknowledge            -   In this case, the abandon attempt is unsuccessful.                Nothing is done in the physical tile harness. The                abandon attempt has become a no-op, and no side-effects                have occurred.        -   If no entry to abandon could be selected because of pending            outgoing messages, or if the abandon attempt is not            successful, the abandon attempt is retried, until the cache            set is no longer almost full or until the abandon request            gets a positive acknowledge. A wait time is imposed before            each retry.

Notice that while an abandon request is in progress, concurrentinvalidate requests can make the L1 cache set smaller automatically, andtherefore the need to abandon an entry may go away by itself.

The transactional implementation of abandon described above is requiredbecause, depending on the network contention, there may be manyadditional transactions in the owner regarding v′ (such as deallocatingv′ from p, allocating v′ on a different physical tile p″), while theabandon message for (v′→p′) is in transit from the present physical tileto the owner of v′

The “outbound communication request FSM”, written in sequential codehere, can be “software pipelined” (i.e., iterations n+1,n+2, . . . canbe started before iteration n is finished) by correctly respectingdependences. For example, when there are two back to back access_requestcommands to the same virtual tile, but the first one misses in the localfirst level cache, the second request must wait for the first one toupdate the local first level cache. However, two back-to-backaccess_request commands to different virtual tiles can proceed inparallel/pipelined fashion. Messages from one given virtual tile toanother given virtual tile should never be re-ordered, since notreordering messages between a pair of virtual tiles is a guarantee thehypervisor gives to all virtual supercomputers.

The “outbound communication response FSM” can also be softwarepipelined, so that a deeply pipelined implementation of theoutstandingBySource and outstandingByDest data structures can beutilized.

Inbound Communication FSM:

This FSM has the following FIFO interfaces

-   -   The slave port of the communication network facing the other        physical tile harnesses: This bidirectional port is used for        receiving application messages internal to the virtual        supercomputer, and sending back acknowledgement responses, for        confirming that the message has reached its destination.    -   The sending FIFO interface of the master port to the inbound        pre-communication network facing the attached physical tile.        This unidirectional master port sends requests only, it does not        receive responses.

The inbound communication FSM executes the following steps in anunending loop:

-   -   The FSM waits for an incoming message from the receiving FIFO of        the slave port of the communication network facing other        physical tile harnesses, of the form        -   Receive Request (communication): Source=(p0=sending physical            tile harness) Dest=(receiving physical tile harness=me)            Opcode=communicate Vdest=(v=virtual destination tile)            Vsource=(v_src=virtual source tile) Payload=(m=application            message payload)    -   The physical tile routing information is deleted from the        inbound communication message. This resulting message is then        sent over the sending FIFO of the master port of the inbound        pre-communication network, to the attached physical tile, as        follows:        -   Send Request (inbound pre-communication): Opcode=communicate            Vdest=(virtual destination tile=v) Vsource=(Virtual source            tile=v_src) Payload=(application message payload=m)    -   Also, an acknowledgement response is sent back from the sending        FIFO of the communication network slave port:        -   Send Response (communication): Source=(same source as in the            request p0) Opcode=communication_acknowledge Vdest=(virtual            destination tile=v) Vsource=(virtual source tile=v_src)            The inbound communication FSM, specified as sequential code            here, can be software-pipelined by correctly respecting            dependences.

Control FSM

This FSM has the following ports:

-   -   The slave port of the control network facing owner units: An        owner can use this port to send a shutdown_and_read_state        request or a write_state request ro the present physical tile        harness; to invalidate a mapping (virtual tile→physical tile) in        the local first level cache of the present physical tile harness        (called L1); and also to drain messages emanating from a        particular source virtual tile and also from the present        physical tile harness.    -   The master port of the pre-control network facing the attached        physical tile: this port relays shutdown_and_read_state and        write_state messages coming from an owner unit to the present        physical tile harness over the control network, to the attached        physical tile.

The control FSM executes the following steps in an unending loop:

-   -   The FSM waits for an incoming request message from the slave        port of the control network facing owners.    -   If the message is of the form        -   Receive Request (control): Source=(o0=requesting owner unit)            Tag=(t0=tag) Dest=me Opcode=shutdown_and_read_state        -   This request is passed on to the master port of the            pre-control network facing the attached physical tile, as        -   Send Request (pre-control): Opcode=shutdown_and_read_state        -   The Source (sending owner unit number) and Tag fields, which            identify an outstanding request are saved in variables o0            and t0 respectively. When the response (state data) is            received from the receiving FIFO of the master port of the            pre-control network facing the attached physical tile, which            will be of the form:        -   Receive Response (pre-control): Opcode=read_state_response            Tilestate=(st=state data)        -   this response is then forwarded to slave port of the control            network facing owner units after adding response routing            information fields, as:        -   Send Response (control): Source=(same source (sending owner)            unit as in the request=o0) Tag=(same tag as in the            request=t0) Opcode=read_state_response Tilestate=(state            data=st)        -   The transfer of the tile state from the pre-control to the            control network should be implemented in pipelined fashion            for large states.    -   Else, if the message is of the form:        -   Receive Request (control): Source=(o0=requesting owner unit)            Tag=(t0=tag) Dest=me Opcode=write_state Tilestate=(st=state            data)        -   the message is passed on to the master port of the            pre-control network facing the attached physical tile after            deleting the routing fields, as        -   Send Request (pre-control): Opcode=write_state            Tilestate=(state data=st)        -   The transfer of the tile state from the control to the            pre-control network should be implemented in pipelined            fashion for large states.        -   The source of the request (requesting owner), and the            outstanding request tag are saved locally in the variables            o0 and t0. The response (acknowledgement) coming from the            master port of the pre-control network facing the physical            tile        -   Receive Response (pre-control): Opcode=acknowledge is            forwarded to the slave port of the control network facing            the owner units, after adding physical tile routing            information, as:        -   Send Response (control): Source=(same source as in the            request=o0) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t0)            Opcode=acknowledge    -   Else, if the message is of the form        -   Receive Request (control): Source=(o0=requesting owner)            Tag=(t0=tag) Dest=me Opcode=invalidate Vtile=(v=the virtual            tile to invalidate)        -   If v is locked as a virtual destination tile (i.e., v is a            member of lockedDest, meaning that there is an ongoing            access_request transaction which is about to place v in the            local cache L1)            -   A negative acknowledgement response is sent back, and                the invalidate transaction ends immediately:                -   Send Response (control): Source=(same source as in                    the request=o0) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t0)                    Opcode=negative_acknowledge                -   The requesting owner will then retry the invalidate                    request at a later time.        -   Otherwise,            -   The entry for the requested virtual tile is atomically                deleted from the local first level cache            -   The FSM waits until all outstanding messages to v have                been delivered (outstandingByDest[v] is zero)            -   The positive acknowledgement response is sent back to                the requester over the slave port of the control network                facing the owner units, as follows:                -   Send Response (control): Source=(same source owner                    as in the request=o0) Tag=(same tag as in the                    request=t0) Opcode=acknowledge    -   Else, if the message is of the form        -   Receive Request (control): Source=(o0=requesting owner)            Tag=(t0=tag) Dest=me Opcode=drain Vtile=(v_src=virtual            source tile to drain)        -   The control FSM waits until one of the following is true,            using atomic accesses when accessing the data structures:        -   outstandingBySource[v_src] is zero (there are no more            pending messages sourced from virtual tile v_src and from            the present physical tile harness), and the receiving FIFO            of the slave port of the outbound pre-communication network            facing the attached physical tile is empty, and v_src is not            locked as a virtual source tile (v_src is not in            lockedSource), or        -   a time limit is exceeded.        -   The purpose is to wait until all messages emanating from the            virtual source tile v_src have been delivered, or until a            probable deadlock is detected. If the time limit is exceeded            first, the drain has failed, and a negative acknowledgement            is sent back:        -   Send Response (control): Source=(same source as in the            request=o0) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t0)            Opcode=negative_acknowledge        -   Otherwise, the drain has succeeded, and a positive            acknowledgement is sent back:        -   Send Response (control): Source=(same source as in the            request=o0) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t0)            Opcode=acknowledge

There are no other kinds of control requests.

The control FSM will not be software pipelined within the physical tileharness, since physical tile configuration operations cannot be easilysoftware pipelined. But an owner unit can overlap control networkrequests to different physical tile harnesses when dependences permit.

Owner Unit

Referring to the schematic in FIG. 14, in this section, we will describethe owner unit, including its internal FSMs. The set of all virtualtiles is partitioned to almost equal-sized parts, using a simple hashalgorithm; and each partition is assigned to a separate owner unit,which takes responsibility for managing the virtual tiles in its ownpartition.

Internal Memory State:

-   -   ptile: An owner unit is responsible for maintaining a map ptile        from each virtual tile it owns to a physical tile, in case this        pair is currently mapped to a physical tile, or to NULL, in case        this virtual tile is not currently mapped.    -   sharers: For each virtual tile v that is mapped to a physical        tile p, the owner unit also keeps the set of physical tile        harnesses p′ (≠p) that have locally cached the (v→p) mapping.        This set of physical tile harnesses is called the sharers of v.        Maintaining this set is necessary for identifying the local        first level cache entries within physical tile harnesses that        should be invalidated, when a physical tile is pre-empted; i.e.,        when it stops running one virtual tile, and starts running        another virtual tile. Each set in the sharers map can be        represented as a bit string. One of the known directory entry        compression techniques can be used, when the number of physical        tiles is so large that a bit string representation is        impractical.    -   priorPtile: In addition, each owner maintains a map from each        virtual tile to the previous physical tile this virtual tile was        allocated to, if any. Initially this map priorPtile is empty        (all entries are NULL). Each time a virtual tile v is        de-allocated, its last physical tile is written into        priorPtile[v].    -   A multi-level cache hierarchy (whose lowest level is in local        off-chip DRAM near the present owner unit), addressed by a        virtual tile, is appropriate for the combined implementation of        ptile, sharers and priorPtile. These data structures are shared        by both the lookup FSM and the allocation/deallocation FSM        within the owner unit. The accesses to these data structures        must be made to appear atomic, which can be achieved by a        multi-ported design, and/or a 2 to 1 network for arbitration.    -   tileState: In addition, each owner has a map from virtual tiles        to tile states called tileState. The state of a virtual tile is        saved in this map. “Hypervisor storage,” mentioned earlier in        this document, is implemented as the tileState maps of each        owner. Assuming that the states of virtual tiles are large, it        is best to implement both the tags and the data part of the        tileState map in off-chip DRAM near the present owner unit,        without using any on-chip caches. The tileState data structure        is accessed only by the allocation/deallocation FSM of the owner        unit, hence atomic access to tileState within the owner unit is        not required.

The owner unit has the following internal FSMs:

The Lookup FSM

The lookup FSM has the following ports

-   -   A slave port of the lookup network facing the physical tile        harnesses: This port is used for receiving an access_request, to        look up the physical tile corresponding to a given virtual tile,        and to respond to the requester with this physical tile. This        port is also used for receiving an abandon request indicating        that a particular physical tile harness wishes to stop sharing a        (v→p) mapping in its local cache, where virtual tile v is among        the responsibilities of the present owner.    -   A master port of the replacement tile selection network facing        the monitor: This master port is used to send a tile_request to        the monitor, which will respond with a physical tile to        pre-empt, using the pre-decided tile replacement algorithm. It        is also used to send a tile_unlock request for a physical tile        to the monitor unit, informing the monitor unit that the        deallocation/allocation activities on that physical tile are        complete.    -   A master port of the allocation/deallocation network facing        owners, in particular the local allocation/deallocation FSM of        the present owner. This master port is used to allocate a        virtual tile to a physical tile or to deallocate a virtual tile        from a physical tile. A request to drain the communication        network of the remaining pending messages emanating from a given        virtual tile is also sent across this network.

The lookup FSM executes the following steps in an unending loop:

The lookup FSM waits for a request from the slave port of the lookupnetwork facing physical tile harnesses.

Access Request

If the incoming message is an access request of the form:

-   -   Receive Request (lookup): Source=(p0=requesting physical tile        harness) Tag=(t0=tag) Dest=me Opcode=access_request        Vtile=(v=virtual tile)    -   Atomically do: read p=ptile[v]; if(p!=NULL) add p0 to        sharers[v]; p′=priorPtile[v].    -   If the virtual tile v whose physical tile is requested, is not        mapped to a physical tile in the present owner (p==NULL),    -   If there was a prior physical tile p′ that v was mapped to        (p′!=NULL)        -   Attempt to ensure that all messages from v at the time when            v was on p′, reach their destination, by sending a drain            request to my own allocation/deallocation FSM:            -   Send Request (allocation/deallocation):                Source=(requesting owner=me) Tag=(t1=new tag) Dest=me                Opcode=drain Vtile=(virtual tile=v) Ptile=(last physical                tile of v=p′)        -   where the drain operation will: either succeed and return a            positive acknowledgement to the present owner            -   Receive Response (allocation/deallocation): Source=(same                source as the request=me) Tag=(same tag as the                request=t1) Opcode=acknowledge        -   or, the drain operation will fail (e.g., due to a deadlock            in high contention conditions) and will return a negative            acknowledgement after a timeout.            -   Receive Response (allocation/deallocation): Source=(same                source as the request=me) Tag=(same tag as the                request=t1) Opcode=negative_acknowledge    -   If there is a prior physical tile p′ that v was allocated to        (p′!=NULL), and the attempt to drain the messages from v on p′        failed:        -   The required physical tile parameter (Required_ptile) p″ to            be sent to the monitor unit, is set to p′; doing so forces            the physical tile returned by the monitor to be identical to            the old physical tile p′ otherwise        -   The required physical tile parameter (Required_ptile) p″ is            set to NULL, so that the monitor unit is free to return an            arbitrary new physical tile.    -   The lookup FSM then sends the request        -   Send Request (replacement tile selection):            Source=(requesting owner=me) Tag=(t2=new tag) Dest=Monitor            Opcode=tile_request Vtile=(virtual tile=v)            Required_ptile=p″,    -   to the monitor unit over the master port of the replacement tile        selection network, and then receives a response of the form        -   Receive Response (replacement tile selection): Source=(same            source as in the request=me) Tag=(same tag as in the            request=t2) Opcode=tile_response Vtile=(v′=Previous virtual            tile allocated to p) Ptile=(p=Physical tile to preempt)    -   from the same master port of the replacement tile selection        network. The monitor can also respond with a        negative_acknowledge to a tile_request when all eligible        physical tiles are locked (i.e., are currently being        reconfigured). In this case the tile_request is resent by the        present owner after a delay time, until a valid physical tile is        received.    -   Here, v′ is the virtual tile that is currently mapped to the        selected physical tile p, which will be pre-empted. The monitor        maintains an accurate map from each physical tile to the virtual        tile it contains, if any. If nothing is currently mapped to the        physical tile p, v′=NULL is returned by the monitor.    -   If v′ is not NULL (there is an occupant virtual tile v′ on p)        -   The lookup FSM sends a            -   Send Request (allocation/deallocation):                Source=(requesting owner=me) Tag=(t3=new tag)                Dest=(o3=owner of v′) Opcode=deallocate Vtile=(virtual                tile to deallocate=v) Ptile=(physical tile v′ is                presently mapped top)        -   To the owner o3 of v′ (determined by computing a hash            function of v′), over the master port of the            allocation/deallocation network. Note that the owner of v′            may be different from the present owner, or it could be the            same as the present owner.        -   The lookup FSM waits for an acknowledgement response from            o3, from the same master port.            -   Receive Response (allocation/deallocation): Source=(same                source as in the request=me) Tag=(same tag as in the                request=t3) Opcode=acknowledge    -   At this point p is an empty physical tile. The lookup FSM sends        a        -   Send Request (allocation/deallocation): Source=(requesting            owner=me) Tag=(t4=new tag) Dest=me Opcode=allocate            Vtile=(virtual tile=v) Ptile=(physical the p) Sharer=(sharer            physical tile=p0)    -   to its own allocation/deallocation FSM, over the master port of        the allocation/deallocation network (the request asks that v be        allocated to p, and that p0 be made a sharer of the (v→p)        mapping)    -   The lookup FSM waits for an acknowledgement response from the        same master port        -   Receive Response (allocation/deallocation): Source=(same            source as in the request=me) Tag=(same tag as in the            request=t4) Opcode=acknowledge    -   At this point, the requested mapping v→p is already in the map        of this present owner unit, and p is known, and the requester        physical tile p0 has already been added to the sharers list for        v.    -   Then, the lookup FSM returns the physical tile p as the response        to the requesting physical tile harness p0, over the slave port        of the lookup network:        -   Send Response (lookup): Source=(same source as in the            request p0) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t0)            Opcode=access_response Ptile=(physical tile=p)    -   Finally the physical tile p being pre-empted is unlocked in the        monitor, to signal that deallocation allocation activities on p        are complete, by sending the following request and receiving its        acknowledgement:        -   Send Request (replacement tile selection): Source=me            Tag=(t5=new tag) Dest=Monitor Opcode=unlock_tile            Ptile=(physical tile=p)        -   Receive Response (replacement tile selection): Source=(same            source as in the request=me) Tag=(same tag as in the            request=t5) Opcode=acknowledge

Abandon Request

If the request is an abandon request of the form:

-   -   Receive Request (lookup): Source=(p0=source physical tile        harness) Tag=(t0=tag) Opcode=abandon Vtile=(v=virtual tile)        Ptile=(p=physical tile)    -   Atomically do:    -   If v is mapped to p (ptile[v]==p), and p0 is a sharer of this        mapping (p0 is is among sharers[v]):        -   -   Remove the physical tile p0 from the sharer list of                virtual tile v (sharers[v])    -   Else        -   Do nothing    -   If the sharer p0 was removed    -   Send back the response:        -   Send Response (lookup): Source=(same source as in the            request p0) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t0)            Opcode=acknowledge    -   Else    -   Send back a negative acknowledgement response        -   Send Response (lookup): Source=(same source as in the            request=p0) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t0)            Opcode=negative_acknowledge

The lookup FSM can be software-pipelined subject to normal sequentialexecution constraints. For example, if a first access_request to avirtual tile results in a miss in the ptile map, a second access_requestto the same virtual tile must wait until the first request is processedand the ptile data structure is updated. However, a second request to adifferent virtual tile can proceed independently of the first request.

Allocation/Deallocation FSM

The allocation/deallocation FSM has the following ports:

-   -   A master port of the control network facing physical tile        harnesses: This port is used to send shutdown_and_read_state and        write_state requests to a physical tile harness, invalidate a        local first level cache entry within a physical tile harness,        and also drain the pending messages emanating from a particular        virtual tile and particular physical tile.    -   A slave port of the allocation/deallocation network facing owner        units (including the present owner unit). Requests to allocate a        virtual tile to a physical tile, or to deallocate a virtual tile        from a physical tile, or to drain the pending messages emanating        from a particular virtual tile, where the virtual tile is owned        by the present owner unit, are serviced at this port.

The allocation/deallocation FSM shares the ptile, priorPtile and thesharers data structures with the lookup FSM. The accesses to these datastructures should be atomic.

The allocation/deallocation FSM performs the following steps in anunending loop

Deallocate Request

If there is a deallocate request of the form:

-   -   Receive Request (allocation/deallocation): Source=(o0=requesting        owner) Tag=(t0=tag) Dest=me Opcode=deallocate Vtile=(v′=virtual        tile to deallocate) Ptile=(p=physical tile v′ is now allocated        to)        -   Atomically do: A mapping (v′→p) should be present in the            present owner unit (i.e., ptile[v′]==p). Save the sharers            list of v′, s=sharers[v′]. Remember the old mapping of v′,            by setting priorPtile[v′]=ptile[v′]. Delete the map entries            ptile[v′] and sharers [v′].        -   For each p′ in the saved sharers list s of the mapping            (v′→p),            -   Send an invalidate v′ request to physical tile harness                p′ over the master port of the control network and                receive an acknowledgement over the same master port.                -   Send Request (control): Source=(requesting owner=me)                    Tag=(t1=new tag) Dest=(physical tile harness=p′)                    Opcode=invalidate Vtile=(virtual tile to                    invalidate=v′)                -   Response (control): Source=(same source as in the                    request=me) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t1)                    Opcode=(w=invalidate response)            -   Retry the invalidate request while the response w is a                negative_acknowledge (i.e., there is an ongoing access                request for v′ in p′), until a (positive) acknowledge                response comes back        -   The iterations of this last for loop for the invalidate            requests can be executed in parallel; the invalidation            requests sent to multiple sharers can be overlapped.    -   Send the physical tile harness p a shutdown_and_read_state        request over the master port of the control network facing the        physical tile harnesses        -   Send Request (control): Source=(requesting owner=me)            Tag=(t2=new tag) Dest=(physical tile harness p)            Opcode=shutdown_and_read_state    -   Receive the tile state data as the response.        -   Receive Response (control): Source=(same source as in the            request=me) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t2)            Opcode=read_state_response Tilestate=(st=state data)    -   Then, write the tile state data into this owner's local        tileState map tileStateN=st    -   The receiving and writing of the tile state data should be        pipelined, for large states.    -   Finally, as the response to the deallocate request, send an        acknowledgement        -   Send Response (allocation/deallocation): Source=(same source            as in the request=o0),Tag=(same tag as in the request=t0)            Opcode=acknowledge back to the requesting owner unit, over            the slave port of the allocation/deallocation network.

Allocate Request

Otherwise, if there is an allocate request of the form:

-   -   Receive Request (allocation/deallocation): Source=(o0=requesting        owner) Tag=(t0=tag) Dest=me Opcode=allocate Vtile=(v=virtual        tile) Ptile=(p=physical tile) Sharer=(p0=sharer physical tile)    -   Atomically do:        -   //ptile[v] must be NULL        -   set ptile[v]=p; sharers [v]={p0}    -   Read the state data for the virtual tile from the local storage        of this owner        -   st=tileState[v]    -   Write the new state of physical the p, by sending        -   Send Request (control): Source=(requesting owner=me)            Tag=(t1=new tag) Dest=(physical tile to reconfigure p)            Opcode=write_state Tilestate=(state data=st)    -   to the physical tile harness p over the master port of the        control network. The reading and sending of the tile state        should be pipelined for large states.    -   Wait for the acknowledgement response for the write_state        message        -   Receive Response (control): Source=(same source as in the            request=me) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t1)            Opcode=acknowledge    -   After this response is received, the virtual tile v must be        running on p.        -   Send back the response Send Response (allocate-deallocate):            Source=(same source as in the request=o0) Tag=(same tag as            in the request=t0) Opcode=acknowledge    -   over the slave port of the allocate/deallocate network.

Drain Request

If there is a drain request of the form:

-   -   Receive Request (allocation/deallocation): Source=(o0=requesting        owner) Tag=(t0=tag) Dest=me Opcode=drain Vtile=(v_src=virtual        source tile) Ptile=(p=physical tile)    -   Send a        -   Send Request (control): Source=(requesting owner=me)            Tag=(t1=new tag) Dest=(physical tile to drain=p)            Opcode=drain Vtile=(virtual source tile=v_src)    -   message to the physical tile harness p over the master port of        the control network    -   Wait for the response for the drain message        -   Receive Response (control): Source=(same source as in the            request=me) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t1)            Opcode=(w=response opcode)    -   where the response opcode w is either acknowledge or        negative_acknowledge    -   Send back the response        -   Send Response (allocate-deallocate): Source=(same source as            in the request=o0) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t0)            Opcode=w    -   over the slave port of the allocate/deallocate network.

The allocation/deallocation FSM can be software pipelined, subject tosequential dependencies.

Monitor Unit

Referring to the schematic in FIG. 15, in this section, we will describethe internal organization of the monitor unit, including its internalFSM.

The monitor unit is used to detect the activity within each of thephysical tiles, analyze the activity and suggest the best physical tileto pre-empt to owners who request a new physical tile to pre-empt. Eachphysical tile periodically sends its state to the monitor unit. In asystem with N physical tiles, this can be done by an ordinary N to 1incomplete butterfly sub-network as described in [Supercomputer], whichcan also cross chips in the usual way. But creating a customizedpipelined token-ring network to achieve the N to 1 unidirectionalcommunication requires less hardware. The customized pipelined tokenring network can be implemented by a 1D torus (or ring) network whichalso passes through the monitor unit. Immediately after system resettime, for each physical tile p in the system, a packet that shall beowned and updated by p is injected into the ring, initially indicatingthat this tile p is nor working (i.e., idle). Normally, each physicaltile forwards each incoming packet to the next node in the ring.However, when the physical tile's own packet (a packet whose id field isequal to the present physical tile) is passing by, the packet is updatedwith the present physical tile's current status, before being forwardedto the next node in the ring. The monitor is located between the lastphysical tile and the first physical tile in the ring. The monitor unitgets a packet from the last physical tile, updates its data structuresas the packet from each physical tile passes by, and forwards the packetto the first physical tile. When asked for a tile to pre-empt, themonitor unit analyzes the data from all the physical tiles and returnsthe best tile to pre-empt, according to its replacement algorithm.

A simple scalable implementation of the Least Recently Used policy: Webegin with a scalable baseline algorithm for true LRU replacement oftiles. Let us call the time from the point where a physical tile's ownpacket passes the physical tile and the point where its own packetpasses the physical tile again, a time interval of the physical tile.Assuming that each time interval where the physical tile was active atleast for one cycle, is considered a “reference” to the physical tile(as if in a reference to a data page in a virtual memory system), theleast recently used algorithm can be simply implemented by mimicking thefollowing software algorithm for LRU insertion in a doubly-linked list,as shown in the code below. Two sentinel list elements called “back” and“front” are placed at the back and front of a doubly linked list. A“reference” to a physical tile i consists of a deletion of node i fromits current location (loads from flink[i] and blink[i], and stores intoflink[blink [i]] and blink[flink[i]]) and a re-insertion of physicaltile i just before front sentinel element (stores intoflink[blink[front]], where blink[front] is cached in a register, andinto flink[i] and blink[i]). The number of loads/stores is as follows: 1load from the flunk array, 1 load from blink array, 2 stores into theblink array, and 3 stores into the flunk array. The 2 loads can be donein parallel in step 1, and then the 5 stores can be done in parallel instep 2, if memory port resources permit. Depending on the number ofports in the available memory arrays and the total number of tiles, theentire “reference” operation will require only a few cycles. The numberof ports of the memory arrays can be increased in known ways, e.g., bybank-interleaving and/or by using multi-ported arrays.

//A doubly-linked list //specification of //the Least Recently Usedreplacement policy typedef Int12 TileIndex; //up to (2**12)−2 tiles inthis example class LRU { public: static const TileIndex front=N,back=N+1; TileIndex blink[N+2];//backward link TileIndexflink[N+2];//forward link LRU( ) { //initialization  TileIndexprev=back;  for(TileIndex i=0;i<=front; ++i) { blink[i]=prev;flink[prev]=i; prev=i;  }  //blink[back], flink[front] not used } voidreference(const TileIndex i) { //place the referenced tile i in MRUposition //delete i from its current place flink[blink[i]]=flink[i];blink[flink[i]]=blink[i]; //add it just before the front element//blink[front] can be cached in a register flink[blink[front]]=i;flink[i]=front; blink[i]=blink[front]; blink[front]=i; }

The Internal Data Structures

The internal data structures of the monitor unit are as follows

-   -   flunk and blink arrays for implementing the LRU doubly linked        list, as described above.    -   vtile: an array mapping each physical tile to the virtual tile        it contains, or to NULL, in case this physical tile does not        contain any virtual tile    -   working: an array mapping each physical tile to a Boolean value        indicating that the physical tile was still working (was not        idle) in the last time interval. The working attribute of a        physical tile is updated with an incoming message from the        statistics network, only when the physical tile is not locked.    -   isfree: an array mapping each physical tile to Boolean value,        where isfree[p] is true if and only ifp is currently not locked        (i.e. not currently being configured).

At initialization time: the LRU doubly linked list is initialized to adefault order, e.g., the sequential order of the physical tiles as shownabove. For all physical tiles p, vtile[p] is set to NULL and working[p]is set to false, and isfree[p] is set to true. But, for pinned physicaltiles p representing the application placeholder tiles, vtile[p] is setto virtual tile −1 of the respective application and working[p] is true,and isfree[p] is set to false (so that p will never be pre-empted).

The Monitor FSM

The monitor FSM has the following ports:

-   -   A slave port to the tile replacement network facing owner units.    -   A slave port of the statistics network described above facing        the physical tiles.

This unidirectional slave port only accepts requests; it does not sendback responses.

The monitor FSM repeatedly performs the following in a unending loop:

-   -   If there is a tile_request in the slave port of the replacement        tile selection network, of the form:        -   Receive Request (replacement tile selection):            Source=(o0=requesting owner) Tag=(t0=tag) Dest=me            Opcode=tile_request Vtile=(v=virtual tile the owner is            trying to map) Required_ptile=(p′=required physical tile)    -   If the required physical tile p′ is not NULL        -   Set eligible={p′}//The monitor must respond with p′.    -   Else        -   Set eligible=the set of all physical tiles except            placeholder tiles    -   Starting from the LRU element (flink[back]), follow the linked        list in the forward link direction until a physical tile p that        satisfies (isfree[p] and eligible[p]), if any, is found.        -   Optionally apply additional heuristics to choose p among            multiple free and eligible candidates    -   If no such tile p could be found (all eligible physical tiles        are locked),        -   Send back the response            -   Send Response (replacement tile selection): Source=(same                source as in the request=o0) Tag=(same tag as in the                request=t0) Opcode=negative_acknowledge    -   Else // p is the physical tile satisfying the desired properties        -   Using the physical tile p that was found, send back the            response            -   Send Response (replacement tile selection): Source=(same                source as in the request=o0) Tag=(same tag as in the                request=t0) Opcode=tile_response Vtile=(previous virtual                tile mapped to p=vtile[p])) Ptile=(physical tile to                return to owner p)        -   Set vtile[p]=v to remember the new virtual tile v now on p.            Set working[p]=true. Set isfree[p]=false (lock the tile)        -   Simulate a reference to p so it moves to the front (Most            Recently Used) position of the LRU list    -   Else if there is a request in the slave port of the replacement        tile selection network:        -   Receive Request (replacement tile selection):            Source=(o0=requesting owner) Tag=(t0=tag) Dest=me            Opcode=tile_unlock Ptile=(p=physical tile to unlock)        -   Set isfree[p]=true (unlock the p)        -   Send back the acknowledgement response            -   Send Response (replacement tile selection): Source=(same                source as in the request=o0) Tag=(same tag as in the                request=t0) Opcode=acknowledge    -   Else if there is a request in the slave port of the statistics        network:        -   Receive Request (statistics network): Dest=me            Opcode=status_update Ptile=(p=sending physical tile)            Working=(b=Boolean value)        -   If the physical tile p is not locked (isfree[p] is true)        -   Set working[p]=b        -   If b is true (the physical tile was not idle in its rime            interval), update the LRU data structure (flunk, blink) with            a reference to p.        -   A response is not required for the statistics request.    -   Else        -   Do nothing in this loop iteration

The monitor should answer requests sufficiently faster than the averagetile replacement rate in the entire hypervisor system. Otherwise, themonitor will become a bottleneck in the hypervisor system. Theoptimization described starting in paragraph [00143] describes ways toaccomplish this scalability requirement.

Solutions to Race Conditions

In this section, we will summarize five important potential racecondition errors within a highly parallel implementation of ahypervisor, and show how these errors are eliminated by the presentdesign. These race conditions will also help explain the design choicesmade in the present preferred embodiment.

Access Request Followed by Invalidate Causes Invalidate to be Lost

-   -   Desired logical sequence of events:        -   Initially, physical tile p1's local cache does not contain            virtual tile v        -   Initially, virtual tile v is mapped to physical tile p in            the owner o1 of v; physical tile p1 is not a sharer of this            mapping.        -   Physical tile p1 sends an access_request for v, to o1, and            gets p back. p1 is established as a sharer of the (v→p)            mapping within o1 The entry (v→p) is added to the local            cache of p1.        -   o1 then sends “invalidate v” to p1, causing the local cache            entry (vp) to be deleted in p1.    -   An actual sequence of events with a race condition error is        shown below        -   p1 sends “access_request v” to o1        -   o1 receives “access_request v” from p1        -   o1 sends “access_response p” to p1        -   o1 sends “invalidate v” request to p1 (o1 is de-allocating v            from p)        -   p1 receives “invalidate v” request from o1 (incorrect, v is            not present in the local cache of p1). Notice that the            networks may have different latencies, causing the            “access_response p” message to be delayed.        -   p1 receives “access_response p” from o1, and places (v→p) in            its local cache (incorrect, v should not be in p1's local            cache at the end)

Solution: the “invalidate v” request from o1 to p1 will find v locked inp1 (by virtue of the lockedDest data structure of a physical tileharness which is checked by invalidation requests). o1 will get anegative acknowledgement for the invalidation request. The failinginvalidation request will then be retried by o1.

Superfluous Abandon

Since the local cache is not instantly updated after changes to theowner data structures because of network delays, an abandon request for(v→p) can potentially be sent out by p1 and can then spend a lot of timein the network, even though the (v→p) mapping has already been deletedat the owner of v, p1 has been removed as a sharer of this mapping, andfurther changes have been done for v at the owner, during the transittime of the abandon message. Here an sequence of events showing theincorrect race condition:

-   -   Initially: (v→p) is present in p1's local cache    -   Initially: o1 is v's owner and has a (v→p) mapping    -   p1 sends “abandon v” to o1,    -   o1 sends “invalidate v” to p1; o1 deallocates v in p, v is        deleted from o1's map, p1 ceases to be a sharer of v.    -   o1 allocates v in p′, (v→p′) is added to o1's map    -   o1 receives “abandon v” (incorrect, “abandon v” from p1 is now a        stale request)

Solution: abandon is made transactional; it is either committed oraborted. If o1 does not still have v mapped top or p1 is not a sharer ofthe (v→p) mapping, abandon v will get a negative acknowledgement and theabandon request will become a no-op. Another abandon (possibly to adifferent virtual tile) can be retried by p1, if needed for making spacein the local cache of p1.

Incoming Message Destined to Virtual Tile v Arrives Late, after v hasbeen Deallocated

Obviously, we do not want a message going to virtual tile v to arrive ata physical tile p, after the destination virtual tile v has beendeallocated from p. This is solved by ensuring, with extra quiescencedetection hardware (outstandingByDest outstanding message counter arrayand an additional reverse subnetwork where acknowledgements flow in thereverse direction of the regular communication messages), that allpending messages going to v at p have arrived at v at p, before v getsdeallocated from p.

Incorrect Message Reordering Due to Migrating a Virtual Tile

Here is a sequence of events demonstrating an incorrect messagereordering

-   -   Initially virtual tile v1 is on physical tile p1, virtual tile        v2 is on physical tile p2    -   v1 on p1 sends message number 1 to v2 on p2    -   Message 1 gets delayed in the network    -   v1 gets deallocated from p1    -   v1 gets allocated to p3    -   v1 on p3 sends message number 2 to v2 on p2    -   Message 2 arrives at v2 before message 1 (incorrect, since        messages from v1 to v2 have been reordered)

Solution: With extra quiescence detection hardware (outstandingBySourcecounters, acknowledgement paths in communication network), messages fromv1 on p1 are drained from the network, i.e., messages are made to reachtheir destination before v1 is reallocated on a different physical tile.In case draining the messages from v1 on p1 is not possible (because forexample, of a circular wait/deadlock condition), v1 is again allocatedto its old physical tile p1 without draining its old pending messages,in which case message reordering will not occur.

A circular wait/deadlock condition can occur when attempting to drainmessages, for example, when an access request no. 2 for a message fromv1, is waiting in the same owner's input FIFO for an access request no.1 for a message to v1, where v1 is currently not allocated in anyphysical tile. We have chosen the present simple way to solve thisdeadlock problem (reallocate v1 in its old physical tile if unable todrain its pending outgoing messages). Reordering the access requests inthe owner access request queue may be another way to avoid this kind ofdeadlock.

Physical Tile Gets Preempted for a Second Time while a Logically EarlierPreemption is in Progress

Here is a sequence of events demonstrating a preemption race condition:

-   -   Owner unit o1 asks monitor for a tile to preempt, to place        virtual tile v1.    -   Monitor returns empty physical tile p1 to o1    -   Owner unit o2 asks monitor for a physical tile to preempt, to        place virtual tile v2,    -   Monitor returns physical tile p1 (now presumed by the monitor to        contain v1) again to o2    -   o2 attempts to allocate v2 on p1, by first asking o1 to        deallocate v1 from p1 (incorrect; o1 has not yet allocated v1 on        p1)

Solution: at the time the physical tile p1 is returned by the monitor too1, the physical tile p1 becomes locked. It will be unlocked only wheno1 has finished all reconfiguration activities and sends a “tile_unlock”request for this physical tile p1 to the monitor. When all eligibletiles are locked, the monitor returns a negative acknowledge to tilerequests, so the request will be retried.

Without locking, repeated choice of the same physical tile by themonitor is quite possible, for example, when the eligible physical tilessatisfying a tile request are few in number.

Optimizations

Apart from the baseline hypervisor described above, variousoptimizations of a hypervisor are possible. We list these optimizationsand additional features below.

1. Obtaining a Virtual Supercomputer Automatically from aSingle-Threaded Software Application

This optimization is facilitated because a method to obtain anon-virtual (real) supercomputer from a single-threaded softwareapplication is already described in the co-pending, co-owned US patentapplication [Supercomputer], which has already been incorporated byreference herein, around paragraph [0039]. Here, we will provide theenhancements to [Supercomputer] in order to:

-   -   Create a virtual supercomputer instead of a real one from a        single-threaded software application, and    -   Run the resulting (software application, virtual supercomputer)        pair within the present hypervisor system environment.

Much of the technology described in [Supercomputer] can be used verbatimin the present hypervisor system, once a one-to-one correspondencebetween the concepts of [Supercomputer] and the concepts of the presenthypervisor system is established. Here is the required one-to-onecorrespondence:

-   -   The single-threaded software application/program mentioned in        [Supercomputer], from which a (non-virtual) supercomputer is        obtained, corresponds to:        -   The software application part of a (software application,            virtual supercomputer) pair in the present hypervisor            system;    -   The (non-virtual) supercomputer obtained from a program fragment        of a software application in [Supercomputer], corresponds to:        -   The virtual supercomputer within a (software application,            virtual supercomputer) pair within the present hypervisor            system;    -   Each partition of the (non-virtual) supercomputer in        [Supercomputer], obtained by final design partitioning,        corresponds to:        -   a virtual tile of a virtual supercomputer within a (software            application, virtual supercomputer) pair in the present            hypervisor system;    -   A union chip capable of realizing each partition of the        (non-virtual) supercomputer in [Supercomputer], corresponds to:        -   a physical tile, capable of realizing any of the virtual            tiles of the virtual supercomputer within a (software            application, virtual supercomputer) pair in the present            hypervisor system.

The union chip hardware produced by the method of [Supercomputer] isadapted with slight modifications for use as a physical tile of thepresent hypervisor system, as follows:

For construction of a physical tile, the chip unioning techniquedescribed in paragraphs [00169]-[00190] and Appendix K of[Supercomputer], is used. The union chips of [Supercomputer] areconfigured once during system initialization time, by initializing theconfiguration memory in each chip. The configuration memory identifiesthe particular partition which will be realized by the union chip. Butin the hypervisor system, each physical tile (union chip of[Supercomputer]) will be reconfigured multiple times, on demand.Therefore, not only the configuration memory but also the normal(execution state) memory and registers of the physical tile need to beread out and written. Assuming the simple method of stopping the clockis used to stop a virtual tile, reconfiguring a physical tile willconsist of writing the configuration memory as well as the normalexecution memory and registers, through one or more scan chains.Circuitry will be added to stop the clock, read out the registers andmemories (including the configuration memory), write the registers andmemories (including the configuration memory), and finally restart theclock.

A union chip of [Supercomputer] with n hypercube links will support areal supercomputer system having (2^(n-1))+1 to 2^(n) chips, and willalso include an incomplete hypercube deterministic router within it. Butfor the physical tile of the hypervisor, the partitioned communicationnetwork among physical tiles will already have such incomplete hypercubedeterministic routing; therefore, it is not necessary to have n links,nor is it necessary to do internal hypercube routing within the physicaltile. The physical tile will thus be simplified, and its internal I/Ocontroller will have only one external communication I/O link (a sendingFIFO interface (outbound pre-communication) and a receiving FIFOinterface (inbound pre-communication)), as if it were part of only a1-cube.

Based on the techniques described in detail in the specification andclaims of [Supercomputer] and also in the present section, here are thenthe steps of a method for automatically converting an arbitrarysingle-threaded software application to the pair (modified version ofsaid application, virtual supercomputer that accelerates the saidapplication), which can then be integrated and deployed within ahypervisor system. The first four steps below are taken directly from[Supercomputer]. In the method below, the term “union chip” used in[Supercomputer] has been changed below to “union module,” since now itis not by itself a chip; it instead has become a physical tile that ispart of a larger chip (the cloud building block).

-   -   a) Converting an arbitrary code fragment from the        single-threaded software application into customized non-virtual        supercomputer hardware whose execution is functionally        equivalent to the software execution of the code fragment;    -   b) Generating interfaces on the hardware and software parts of        the application, which:        -   i. Perform a software-to-hardware program state transfer at            the entries of the code fragment;        -   ii. Perform a hardware-to-software program state transfer at            the exits of the code fragment; and        -   iii. Maintain memory coherence between the software and            hardware memories.    -   c) Partitioning the non-virtual supercomputer obtained in        steps a) and b) into multiple modules;    -   d) Creating a union module which is capable of realizing any of        the modules created by step c) depending on the configuration        parameters provided to the union module;    -   e) Creating an (application, virtual supercomputer) pair        wherein:        -   i. The application part of the said pair is the            single-threaded software application as modified in step b);        -   ii. The virtual supercomputer part of the said pair consists            of virtual tiles, each of which is a module obtained in step            c);    -   f) Adding the functionality to stop, start, read the internal        state, and write the internal state of the union module of step        d); to create the physical tile capable of realizing any among        the set of virtual tiles of step e); and    -   g) Integrating at least one copy of the physical tile obtained        in step f) within the hypervisor system, to realize the said        (application, virtual supercomputer) pair within the hypervisor.

2. Semi-Reconfigurable ASIC Physical Tiles

In our preferred embodiment of the hypervisor system, multiple versionsof the physical tiles can be created in ASIC technology, each onecustomized for an important customer application. Also, another physicaltile version in ASIC technology can realize a virtual tile of the“compiler-friendly general purpose supercomputer” (as described in atleast the optimization 5 starting on p. 144, paragraphs [00274]-[00275]and FIGS. 60 and 61 of [Supercomputer]). Then, the physical tiles can bedistributed within the data center, based on the expected percentage ofcomputational resource usage by customer applications. For example, acloud building block chip containing the physical tiles of a given lessfrequently used application A can be assigned to only one rack module,while cloud building block chips containing the physical tiles of a morefrequently used application B can be placed in an entire rack. Theremaining rack modules can consist of physical tiles implementing the“compiler-friendly general-purpose supercomputer union chip”[Supercomputer]. Physical tiles built out of FPGA technology can also beincluded in the data center, for new virtual supercomputer development(before an ASIC version of the physical tile is released). Either“compiler friendly general purpose supercomputer union chip”[Supercomputer] physical tiles, or FPGA physical tiles can be used forapplications for which there is no ASIC physical tile yet, or forapplications which do not warrant the development of an ASIC physicaltile.

When sufficient customer demand has accumulated for particularapplications, multi-project wafer (MPW) service [22] can be used toreduce the costs of low volume production of new ASIC physical tiles forimplementing a virtual supercomputer for these applications. I.e., ateach periodic run of the MPW service new popular customer applicationscollected and analyzed during the last time period can be included inthe run.

The availability of

-   -   (i) An automatic process for converting a single threaded        application into a virtual supercomputer which can share the        resources of a data center, as described in the present document        and [Supercomputer], and    -   (ii) At least one means for low-volume production of ASIC        physical tiles at a reasonable cost;    -   (iii) Recent advances in RTL to GDS-II conversion technologies        for automated ASIC design;        Together open up new possibilities for creating energy        efficient, high performance data centers based on ASIC physical        tiles. Following this train of thought, an adaptive        application-specific hardware lifetime management policy can be        created, for allocating space to application-specific hardware        in a data center, wherein the policy comprises the following        steps:    -   a) Determining the frequency of use of each (application,        virtual supercomputer) pair over a recent time interval;    -   b) Searching for an (application, virtual supercomputer) pair        that has the greatest frequency of use as determined in step a),        such that        -   The pair is not already mapped to an ASIC physical tile; and        -   The frequency of use of the said pair exceeds a threshold;    -   c) If such a pair could be found in step a), creating a new ASIC        physical tile for this pair;    -   d) For each ASIC physical tile in the hypervisor system:        -   Increasing or decreasing the resources allocated to this            ASIC physical tile, in order to make the allocated resources            proportional to the average frequency of use of the            (application, virtual supercomputer) implemented by this            ASIC physical tile;    -   e) Repeating all of the steps above, periodically.

The frequency of use of an (application, virtual supercomputer) pair canbe measured, for example, as the ratio of the cumulative time spent inthe virtual tiles of the said pair divided by the cumulative time spentin all applications in the last time period). The number of ASICphysical tiles installed in the data center should be proportional tothe average frequency of use of the ASIC physical tile. But forimportant applications, the number of the physical tiles should beslightly higher than the average working set, in order to accommodatepeak demand as well.

Of course, the data center cannot keep expanding with new hardwareforever. Through time, the frequency of use of applications will change.To rebalance the allocation of data center space to different kinds ofapplications, less frequently used ASIC physical tiles can beperiodically replaced by more frequently used ASIC physical tiles,according to the policy given above.

It is more practical to make the “field replacement unit” a rack modulecontaining cloud building block chips, which in turn contain copies of aparticular application-specific physical tile. Obsoleteapplication-specific rack modules in the data center, which are nolonger being used, will therefore be replaced over time, byapplication-specific rack modules for new customer applications.

Another way to distribute the physical tiles, which reduces the numberof ASIC chips being released but increases the chip size, is to create asingle chip kind, namely, a larger cloud building block chip that has,for example, a few physical tiles implementing A, some other physicaltiles implementing B, some physical tiles realizing FPGA technology, andthe remaining physical tiles implementing the “compiler-friendly generalpurpose supercomputer union chip” [Supercomputer]. In this case, thespace on this large cloud building block chip can be allocated toapplications using a similar application-specific hardware lifetimemanagement policy over the generations of the chip. Each generation ofthe cloud building block will thus be tailored for applicationscurrently considered important for the target customer community, asolder generations of the cloud building block chip become obsolete.

3. Virtualizing Operating Systems

It suffices to make only a few changes to the baseline hypervisorsystem, in order to virtualize an entire operating system (OS)accelerated by a supercomputer, as opposed to just a user applicationaccelerated by a supercomputer.

-   -   The local virtual tile 0 within a virtual supercomputer for an        OS will be reserved: it will contain a general purpose commodity        microprocessor which will run the OS. The microprocessor of        local virtual tile 0 may share its access path to DRAM units        with other hardware units in the system, or may have its own        memory. Local virtual tile 0 communicates with its environment        only with standard inter virtual-tile messages previously        described in the hypervisor system in this document; thus the OS        will implement a simplified I/O system using fast network access        only.    -   The application placeholder local virtual tile −1 (originally        with a PCI Express connection to the host processor system), is        replaced by a OS placeholder local virtual tile also numbered        −1, with a high speed Ethernet connection to the internet. The        OS placeholder virtual tile is initially allocated to a suitable        physical tile with an Ethernet connection, and pinned at system        reset time to that physical tile: it will not be de-allocated.        -   The Ethernet connection will be responsive to a main IP            address reserved for the particular operating system            instance, which be used for exchanging messages with the OS            running in local virtual tile 0;        -   The Ethernet connection will also be responsive to a            secondary IP address reserved for exchanging messages with a            selected virtual tile of the virtual supercomputer other            than local virtual tile 0, to achieve hardware-accelerated,            fast internet communication without going through the legacy            OS software layers. This direct internet access capability            is critical for creating fast pipelined customized hardware            engines for web services, for example.    -   One can also keep the standard PCI express connection, and let        the software application on the host computer attached to PCI        Express simulate the primary and secondary internet connections.        This will make the virtual hardware-accelerated OS appear to be        an ordinary software application, encapsulated within a        commodity host computer and commodity OS.

Here are some examples of the operation of the virtualhardware-accelerated OS: At the Ethernet connection of the OSplaceholder tile, an inbound IP packet destined to the main IP addresswill be converted to a standard inter virtual-tile message from localvirtual tile −1 to local virtual tile 0. The payload of a standardmessage sent from local virtual tile 0 to local virtual tile −1 will besent out as an outbound IP packet by the OS placeholder tile, using themain IP address. A designated local virtual tile different from 0 canalso communicate with the internet directly, by exchanging messages withlocal virtual tile −1. Local virtual tile −1 will forward inboundmessages received using the secondary IP address of the Ethernetconnection, to the designated local virtual tile different from 0. Also,an outbound message arriving from the designated local virtual tiledifferent from 0, will be sent to the internet by local virtual tile −1,using the secondary IP address of the Ethernet connection.

At system initialization time, the saved initial state of local virtualtile 0 can represent an OS that has just been booted up, waiting forinput from a remote main console, and the saved initial state of everyother virtual tile can be idle, waiting for a message from the OSsoftware to get started. When the microprocessor in local virtual tile 0running the OS, arrives at an accelerated code fragment either in a userapplication or in kernel code, virtual tile 0 exchanges messages withother virtual tiles (e.g., virtual tile 1), thus initiating the actualhardware acceleration.

As an example of using the system, the performance critical parts a webservice (such as a stock quote service) can be accelerated in thismanner. The accelerated web service will appear as a user program withinthe virtual OS, where the user program has exclusive use of thesecondary internet connection, and therefore all legacy softwareoverheads of the OS for network accesses will be bypassed and replacedby parallel pipelined hardware serving to accelerate the complete webservice as a whole. The frequent serializations due to user/kernel modechanges will be eliminated. Hardware resources of the virtualsupercomputer implementing the web service can be incrementallyincreased or decreased over time at a virtual tile granularity, thusmeeting cloud computing requirements.

This approach can boost performance through hardware acceleration ofcritical kernel and application code fragments, using a virtualsupercomputer.

Some relevant difficulties of application-specific hardware accelerationof operating systems (e.g., precise exceptions including page faults,external and timer interrupts, privileged kernel code) were addressed inoptimization 12 starting on p. 161, and optimization 13 starting on p.166 of [Supercomputer]. I.e., it is possible to achieve hardwareacceleration and yet retain binary compatibility with the originalcommodity OS software.

4. Alternative Physical Tile Replacement Algorithms for the Monitor Unit

The baseline version of the monitor unit runs a relatively simplephysical tile replacement algorithm (the Least Recently Used algorithm).It is possible for the monitor unit to boost system performance, if itdeploys a more advanced physical tile replacement algorithm.

As a more general replacement policy, each physical tile can be assigneda heuristic evaluation which is the weighted sum of a number ofattributes of the physical tile, the virtual tile to be allocated to thephysical tile, and several other system attributes. The physical tilewhich gets the highest heuristic evaluation is defined to be the bestphysical tile to replace.

An example of a monitoring algorithm is shown below. Upon a request fora replacement tile,

-   -   The heuristic evaluation for each physical tile is computed in        parallel, as resources permit.    -   The index of the monitored physical tile with the best        evaluation is computed. This can be done within O(log₂(N))        stages for N physical tiles, with an “index of maximum element”        tree circuit where each tree node computes the function ƒ:        ƒ((i1,val1),(i2,val2))=(val1<val2? (i2,val2): (i1,val1)). The        tree computation will yield the final pair (i,val) where i is        the index of an physical tile with the highest heuristic        evaluation, equal to val.    -   The index of a physical tile which gave the highest heuristic        evaluation in the previous step is returned as the tile to be        replaced/preempted.

Several alternatives for speeding up the parallel implementation exist.For example:

-   -   To handle requests for tiles to pre-empt that occur very        frequently, the calculation of the heuristic values can be        shared by k back to back requests. The first request causes the        indices of the un-monitored physical tiles to be sorted by their        heuristic evaluation. The first request among k requests can        return the tile with the highest evaluation, the next request        can the return the next best, and so on. After k requests are        received or after a time interval has elapsed, whichever occurs        earlier, the heuristic evaluations are re-computed and the next        set of k requests are serviced in the same manner.    -   To cut the network latency to reach the monitor unit, multiple        redundant copies of the monitor unit can be distributed in the        system.    -   With certain virtual tiles, such as those requiring an ASIC,        given a virtual tile v, only a subset of the physical tiles are        eligible to accommodate it. In this case, the heuristic        evaluations should be limited to the eligible physical tiles        only.    -   The physical tiles can be partitioned, and different monitor        units can be restricted to choose a physical tile only among one        partition of the physical tiles. This will allow the monitor        unit for each partition to work independently and in parallel.

The heuristic evaluations of each potential replacement tile can bebased on the weighted sum of numerical measurements representative ofthe following features:

Reducing the Communication Latency Among the Virtual Tiles of HardwareAccelerated Applications:

Every (application, virtual supercomputer) pair has a working set of oneor more virtual tiles. In order to decrease the communication latencyamong the virtual tiles in a working set, the following rules should beapplied. (i) Allocation of the first virtual tile: A set of physicaltiles which are close together, with about the size of the working set(obtained by profiling earlier executions of the same application) willbe reserved for this (application, virtual supercomputer) pair, ifpossible. The first virtual tile will preferably be allocated to aphysical tile within the reserved set. (ii) Allocation of a virtual tileduring normal operation: The virtual tile will be preferably be assignedto a physical tile within the reserved set, which is close to thephysical tiles presently belonging to the same virtual supercomputer.

Implementation of More Advanced Replacement Policies:

Based on the status update messages coming from the physical tiles, themonitor unit should continue to use the true LRU replacement policy whenit works well. With dedicated hardware support the monitor unit can alsouse alternative replacement policies such as Least Frequently Used, andcan switch to defensive replacement policies resilient to low reuse,when tile thrashing/low reuse is detected.

Re-Using of Physical Tiles:

It is possible to avoid the reconfiguration overhead of physical tiles.A virtual tile's state is composed of the configuration state (whichspecifies the function of the virtual tile) and the memory state (whichis the current execution state including registers and SRAMs). Whenevera new virtual tile needs to be allocated, the Monitor unit should choosea physical tile that has already been configured with the configurationstate of the new virtual tile.

Honoring Service Level Agreements (SLAs):

The monitor can differentiate the hardware accelerated applicationsbased on their service level agreements. A physical tile that has beenallocated to a virtual tile of an application with a “gold customer” SLAshould have a less chance of being deallocated when it compares to theone that has been used by a virtual tile of an application with a“silver customer” or “bronze customer” SLA. More complex SLA rules, suchas one involving monetary penalties for various levels of performancedegradation can also be factored into the heuristic evaluationcalculation, in an attempt to minimize losses to the data centeroperator.

Other optimizations, such as:

-   -   Stopping physical tiles that have exceeded an energy budget and        allowing them to cool off before being eligible to run a virtual        tile again;    -   Stopping an entire virtual supercomputer to reduce contention        and restarting it later when the contention has subsided;        as well as several other operating system or hypervisor        scheduling techniques can be implemented with parallel hardware,        with appropriate design changes in the monitor unit and owner        units.

5. Avoiding Data Copying During Virtual Tile Migration

Notice that, following the non-virtual supercomputer design within[Supercomputer], the DRAM memory accesses done by a virtual tile (i.e.,a design partition of the original non-virtual supercomputer) are alwayssent to the local DRAM unit near that virtual tile. A virtualsupercomputer thus handles its own low-level DRAM data sharing amongvirtual tiles, e.g., memory coherence, through application communicationmessages sent between the virtual tiles. It is clear that the virtualtile state to be saved includes registers and SRAMs of the virtual tile,defining the current execution state of the virtual tile, and theconfiguration memory, defining the function of the virtual tile. Thevirtual tile execution state also includes the data structures in thelocal DRAM unit of the virtual tile. Local data structures can be readfrom an area within the local DRAM near the old physical tile where thevirtual tile was, saved in hypervisor storage, and later restored fromhypervisor storage to an area within the local DRAM near the newphysical tile. Appropriate memory protection of one virtualsupercomputer from another (such as a memory area range check) must beenforced. This approach will accurately reproduce the behavior of theoriginal non-virtual supercomputer on a hypervisor system. When tilemigrations occur infrequently, this state copying approach is simple andhas high performance as well, since the physical tile will always remainnear the DRAM unit it needs to access.

But, if state saving and restoring is too slow for data structures inDRAM, the DRAM resources in the hypervisor system can be consolidated asa single system-wide bank-interleaved shared memory. In this case, whena virtual tile v1 accesses DRAM, it will access the fixed memory areawithin the entire hypervisor system reserved for “the local DRAM of v1”(preferably in the DRAM unit near the first physical tile where v1 isallocated). When v1 is deallocated from a physical tile and laterallocated to a different physical tile, the state of the “local DRAM ofv1” memory altered by the first physical tile must be made available tothe second physical tile where v1 is migrated, but the DRAM state neednot be copied. The virtual tile will continue to access the same DRAMmemory area from its new physical tile. In this case, reducing thedistance between a physical tile and the DRAM units it needs to access,will be one of the heuristics used by the monitor.

6. Isolation Between Different (Application, Virtual Supercomputer)Pairs

In the main design of this document, we always treated a virtual tile asa pair (application id, local virtual tile number within thisapplication's virtual supercomputer) so that messages from all virtualsupercomputers could be routed in a uniform way. In order to enhancesecurity, the application id part of the pair forming a virtual tileshould not be written or read by the virtual supercomputer at all. Thevirtual supercomputer must communicate only with the virtual tiles ofthe same virtual supercomputer. This can be done by creating a wrappermodule called an inner physical tile harness around the virtual tilewithin the physical tile, which cannot be accessed by the virtual tileexcept by pre-communication messages. The inner physical tile harnesscontains the application id register. Upon reset, the application idregister of a normal physical tile is set to NULL. When a write_staterequest arrives at the physical tile, the application id register isalso written from the “application id” part inside the state data beingwritten. When an inbound pre-communication message arrives at thephysical tile, the application id part of each global virtual tile fieldis verified to be equal to the application id register, and then removedto leave only the local virtual tile number. For outboundpre-communication messages, the application id is pre-pended to each ofthe local virtual tile number fields of the message coming out of thevirtual tile.

Actually, to implement an inner physical tile harness, only a map fromlocal virtual tile numbers within a virtual supercomputer to globalvirtual tile numbers encompassing all virtual tiles of all virtualsupercomputers, and an inverse map for the same, is sufficient.

For example, alternatively, assuming the local virtual tiles of avirtual supercomputer are mapped to a contiguous area of the globalvirtual tile space, where the areas of different virtual supercomputersdo not overlap, a unique virtual tile base register can be used in lieuof the application id register, where the virtual tile base issubtracted from the global virtual tile to obtain the correspondinglocal virtual tile when receiving an inbound pre-communication message,and where the virtual tile base is added to a local virtual tile toobtain a global virtual tile when sending an outbound pre-communicationmessage. The virtual tile base register will be rewritten during eachwrite_state request.

Please also see the next section, regarding how each user-level softwareapplication running on a host machine can be constrained by its OS, toexchange messages only with the local virtual tiles of its own virtualsupercomputer.

7. Starting and Ending Virtual Supercomputer Execution

Notice that we did not mention how to insert a (software application,virtual supercomputer) pair into the hypervisor system, or how to removea (software application, virtual supercomputer) pair from the hypervisorsystem. Thus, the system so far described is suitable for a continuouslyrunning cloud computing system with a fixed set of “approved”(application, virtual supercomputer) pairs.

Here, will describe a method for the creation of new (application,virtual supercomputer) pairs in the hypervisor system, and thedestruction of such pairs.

For reducing the security risks in hardware designs (see, e.g., [23]) werecommend creating cryptographically signed initial states of virtualtiles that are generated using authorized tools, and registering theinitial states of all virtual tiles of all virtual supercomputers beforethey are used. Registering a virtual tile means: checking the signaturevalidity of the initial state of a virtual tile and moving that initialstate to the hypervisor storage.

A distinguished application and its virtual supercomputer called thesupervisor will be introduced here. The supervisor application isprivileged: the supervisor application does not have virtual tiles inits virtual supercomputer other the virtual tile −1, but can exchangemessages with any virtual tile of any virtual supercomputer. The innertile harness protection is disabled for the supervisor. The registrationof a new virtual supercomputer is done using a dedicated PCI Expressconnection to a secure host computer, or an encrypted Internetconnection to a trusted remote server. Registration consists ofinserting the clean initial state of each virtual tile v of each newlyintroduced virtual supercomputer in the hypervisor storage, by sendingthe following messages from tile −1 of the supervisor virtualsupercomputer, over the outbound pre-communication network:

-   -   Send Request (outbound pre-communication): Opcode=communicate        Vdest=(virtual destination tile=v) Vsource=(supervisor virtual        tile −1) Payload=(Opcode=register Tilestate=(virtual tile v's        initial contents))

At system initialization time, virtual tile −1 of the supervisorsupercomputer, pinned in a physical tile and serving as a messageexchange gateway with the trusted server, will attempt to send a messageto virtual tile v of the application. Since the destination virtual tileis initially not allocated in a physical tile, a local first level cachemiss will occur in the supervisor virtual tile −1's physical tileharness. In this case, the physical tile harness of supervisor virtualtile −1 will recognize that (i) it is running the supervisor and that(ii) the “register” opcode is present in the message payload, and willforward the entire “register” message over the lookup network to thecorrect owner of virtual tile v, as follows:

-   -   Send Request (lookup): Source=(p0=physical tile of supervisor        virtual tile −1) Tag=(t0=new tag) Dest=(owner of virtual tile v)        Opcode=register Tilestate=(virtual tile v's initial state)

Virtual tile v's owner unit will respond to the register request by:

-   -   Writing the given virtual tile contents to storage (using the        allocation/deallocation FSM within the same owner unit) as the        clean read-only copy of the initial state of the virtual tile;        and    -   Sending back an acknowledgment to the physical tile harness of        supervisor virtual tile −1:        -   Send Response (lookup): Source=(same source as in the            request p0) Tag=(same tag as in the request=t0)            Opcode=acknowledge without further action.

Upon receiving the acknowledgement from the owner of v, the supervisorphysical tile harness will have completed the registration operation.Then, an acknowledgement message is looped back to the physical tilecontaining the supervisor virtual −1 from its physical tile harness asfollows:

-   -   Send Request (inbound pre-communication): Opcode=communicate        Vdest=(supervisor virtual tile −1) Vsource=(supervisor virtual        tile −1) Payload=(Opcode=acknowledge)

The supervisor can consider the registration complete if and when itreceives acknowledgements for each register request. As a result ofregistering, clean read-only copies of the initial state of virtualtiles will already exist in the hypervisor storage when any(application, virtual supercomputer) pair is started for the first time.The initial contents of a virtual tile implemented through a union chipASIC physical tile, will be the configuration memory contents of thephysical tile. If the physical tile is implemented with an FPGA, theinitial state will be an FPGA configuration bitstream.

It makes sense to store only one copy of the initial state of virtualtiles of a given application, even though there may be multipleinstances of the application running in the hypervisor system at a giventime. For this purpose, it suffices to create a simple function toextract the application id for instance 0 of a given application, giventhe application id of any instance n of the same application. Forexample, the instance id may be the low order bits of the applicationid; therefore, the low order bits will be 0 for the case of instance 0.The application code should not have the privileges to read or write theapplication id field directly, it should exchange messages only with itslocally numbered virtual tiles. To implement this constraint securely,the application id of the application is pre-pended to each messagegoing from the application to the hypervisor system, automatically by alightweight system call for message exchanges with the attachedhypervisor system. In this manner, an instance of an application will beconstrained to exchange messages only with the virtual tiles of its ownvirtual supercomputer and will not be able see or change its ownapplication id.

The first time a virtual tile of a given (application, virtualsupercomputer) is allocated in a physical tile, the writable state ofthe virtual tile will be missing. In this case, theallocation/deallocation FSM within the owner unit will create theinitial writable state for this virtual tile of this instance of theapplication, by copying the configuration information from the cleanread-only state of this virtual tile for instance 0 of the sameapplication, and setting the writable part (registers, memories) of thevirtual tile state to default initial values. Therefore, no specialaction is needed for initializing the virtual tiles when an(application, virtual supercomputer) pair starts.

However, as an (application, virtual supercomputer) pair ends, thehypervisor resources allocated to it (physical tiles that are stillrunning, writable states of virtual tiles that were saved in hypervisorstorage) must be released. This can be accomplished by issuing thefollowing (user-level, non-privileged) message from the softwareapplication, for each virtual tile v of the virtual supercomputer:

-   -   Send Request (outbound pre-communication): Opcode=communicate        Vdest=(virtual tile=v) Vsource=(application virtual tile −1)        Payload=(Opcode=terminate)

From virtual tile −1 of the same application, just before the softwareapplication ends (e.g., these messages can be triggered in the softwareapplication by using an atexit call in a UNIXT™-like system).

The physical tile harness of the application placeholder tile for theapplication understands the message contains a terminate request, andbehaves as if a local first level cache miss occurred, for mappingvirtual tile v to a physical tile, forwarding the terminate message tothe owner of virtual tile v of the present application and instance,over the lookup network. The owner in turn forwards the terminaterequest to the allocation/deallocation FSM, which in turn checks if thevirtual tile v is allocated in a physical tile p, and if so, issues ashutdown_and_read_state command to the physical tile p, but discards thestate. Regardless of whether virtual tile v is allocated or not, theallocation/deallocation FSM also deletes the writable state for thevirtual tile v from hypervisor storage, in case such a writable staterecord exists. As a result, all virtual tiles of this virtualsupercomputer will be de-allocated, and all writable tile states of thisvirtual supercomputer will be deleted from hypervisor storage; thusachieving the termination of the virtual supercomputer.

The physical tile harness of local virtual tile −1 finally sends back anacknowledgement message corresponding to the terminate message back tothe application, in order to assure that the software application canconfirm completion of the virtual supercomputer activities beforeexiting from its process.

8. Heterogeneous Physical Tiles

The idea of application placeholder physical tiles can be easilygeneralized to N PCI Express connections supporting M>N applications.For example when both a couple of instances of application A and aninstance of application B are running on the same host processor and arecommunicating with their three respective virtual supercomputers withthe same PCI Express connection, application placeholder virtual tiles−1 for the two instances of application A and also the applicationplaceholder virtual tile −1 for application B may be implemented on thesingle physical tile attached to this single PCI Express connection. Thesystem will behave as if three application placeholder sub-tiles havebeen implemented inside one single physical tile.

More generally, more than one virtual tile can be allocated insidesub-tiles within a single physical tile.

In a hypervisor system that includes sub-tiles, the following changesare required.

The owner data structures for mapping virtual tiles to physical tiles,and local caches within physical tile harnesses, will become mappingsfrom virtual tiles to (physical tile, sub-tile) pairs. The monitor willsupply (physical tile, sub-tile) pairs to preempt. The physical tilesource and destination fields within messages will also be changed topairs of the form (physical tile, sub-tile). However, routing fromphysical tile harnesses and to physical tile harnesses (e.g. within thecommunication, control and lookup networks) routing will still be donebased on the physical tile portion of the (physical tile, sub-tile)pairs. Once an inbound message going to a (physical tile, sub-tile)enters the physical tile harness, and then reaches the inboundpre-communication channel, or the pre-control channel, the sub-tile partof the destination must be retained in the message for internal routingpurposes within the physical tile, until the specified destinationsub-tile within the physical tile is reached Inner tile harnesses forhiding the application id register from the virtual tile are stillneeded for each sub-tile for security, but will now be called innersub-tile harnesses.

Sub-tile addressing allows flexible allocation of virtual tiles tohardware resources if, for example, sub-tiles are composed of one ormore contiguous hardware blocks of minimum size. For example, assuming aphysical tile has 8 minimal sized blocks and sufficient reconfigurationcapability, 8 sub-tiles of 1 block each (starting at blocks0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7), 4 sub-tiles of 2 blocks each (starting at blocks0,2,4,6), 2 sub-tiles of 4 blocks each (starting at blocks 0 and 4), or1 sub-tile of 8 blocks (starting at 0), are some possibilities which canbe implemented within this physical tile, using algorithms resemblingthe dynamic allocation of memory blocks.

Having heterogeneous physical sub-tiles in the platform requires thatthe monitor unit be modified to apply a matching filter to all physicalsub-tiles before they are evaluated in terms of other possible criteria.That is, the matching filter shall mark a physical sub-tile as feasibleif and only if it has the required resources to contain the virtualtile. Then, the monitor unit shall use only the feasible physicalsub-tiles in the physical sub-tile replacement algorithm.

9. Increased Reliability

Hardware reliability is becoming an increasingly important issue, due toincreased vulnerability to particle-induced soft errors and intermittenttiming faults due to aging effects and voltage droop. Similarly,persistent timing faults caused by manufacturing variability and harderrors due to wear-out are becoming increasingly common. The proposedapproach for virtualizing application-specific supercomputers providesnumerous opportunities for improved fault detection and fault recovery.

The hypervisor system itself is a mainly manual hardware designconsisting of components (mostly FSMs) and networks (such as butterflyand hypercube networks). The physical tile is not a simple FSM, it is infact the most complex component of the hypervisor. Each physical tile inturn contains internal components and networks; but the physical tilewill usually be generated by a compiler from sequential code[Supercomputer]. In both the compiler-generated and manual hardwaredesigns, the techniques to achieve reliability are similar. We willreview some of the techniques for achieving reliability here, with asufficient level of detail, so that the integration of each of thesereliability techniques in a compiler algorithm for generating hardwarefrom sequential code, also becomes clear.

First, to achieve the detection of and recovery from soft errors, it isdesirable to have a checkpoint-restart mechanism to be able to retry thehardware execution of a code fragment, when a potential soft error isdetected in the code fragment. Here is a speculation/retry model for anoperation (x,MEM)=f(x,MEM) (where f is either a simple operation, or acomplex function call, or an inner loop nest in the region hierarchy ofthe program), which reads a memory MEM and a register x, and then writesthe same memory MEM and register x. To be able to retry f, we must firstidentify the memories and registers that are live at the retry point atthe beginning of the invocation of f (register x and memory MEM in thiscase), and revise f to make it f speculative, to ensure the only the newversions of such memories and registers are written, so that theoriginal memory and register inputs to f are not clobbered when a softerror is detected and a retry occurs. When a soft error is detected(e.g. a mismatch is detected during a dual modular redundancy run of fspeculative, or an unrecoverable ECC error occurs during f speculative)the f speculative invocation immediately returns with a condition codecc that is false, otherwise it returns with a condition code cc that istrue, with the results in x′ and MEM′. If there is any error (cc isfalse), the speculative code fragment should be retried, if not, theresults of the speculative code fragment should be committed, whilestill checking them for integrity/ECC errors.

//SPECULATION/RETRY MODEL FOR SOFT ERRORS //original code://x,MEM=f(x,MEM) errCnt=MAX_ERRORS; retry: //x live here //MEM live herelink MEM′=MEM; //acquire a new memory cc,x′,MEM′=f_speculative(x,MEM′);//cc is false if soft error detected if(cc)) { //no soft errors detected//commit results x=x′; unlink MEM=MEM′; } else { if(−−errCnt >=0)//discard the state and retry {unlink NULL=MEM′;goto retry;} else //toomany failures, die {unlink NULL=MEM′; error( );} }

The baseline hardware acceleration of a software application in[Supercomputer] already works like the speculation/retry model givenabove at a very coarse grain, where the function ƒ is the entireaccelerated code fragment. The application-specific supercomputer has alarge DRAM memory serving as a last level cache (the application addressspace is the root of the memory hierarchy). The modified lines of thislast level cache are not written back to the software application memoryuntil the end of the accelerated program fragment, at which point a“flush all dirty lines” request is issued by the accelerator. For anaccelerator with dual modular redundancy and ECC in its last levelcache, if a comparison mismatch or an unrecoverable ECC error isdetected before reaching the point of flushing the dirty lines in thelast level cache, it is possible to recover from the potential softerror by just discarding the accelerator state and restarting the entireaccelerated code fragment from the beginning. The final commit operation(since it is not inside yet another checking harness) can be implementedwith triple modular redundancy. The ECC of the results being committedto the application memory address space can be checked, and the data canbe corrected if possible. If an unrecoverable ECC error occurs duringthe final committing of results, or if there are too many unsuccessfulretries, the result will be a fatal error that should be reported fromthe virtual supercomputer to the software application, which shouldrevert to software-only execution (the original software code will stillbe around). However, the offending physical tile and offending DRAMresources should be avoided in future runs.

In case a soft error is highly probable during a long-runningaccelerated code fragment, sub-regions smaller than the entireaccelerated code fragment in the program region hierarchy can bespeculatively executed by following the recipe in the speculation/retrymodel for soft errors given above.

The conventional approach for fault detection is to replicate hardwareand compare the results (dual-modular redundancy). This approach can berealized by building redundancy into the FSM when creating the FSM.While a register to register operation is executed in duplicate, the twocopies of each of the input operands should be verified to be equal. TheFSM state transition logic should similarly be duplicated and at thebeginning of each cycle/state the two copies of condition codes andstate registers should be verified to be equal. ECC or parity should begenerated and checked during memory operations. Checksums or otherredundancy techniques can be used during network message transmissions.

A cheaper alternative technique is to use modulo N arithmetic (for asmall N) for checking individual operations instead of full dual modularredundancy. If profiling data from a soft error simulation is available,checking logic can be implemented for the registers, functional unitsand FSM state transitions that are most prone to soft errors until anarea budget reserved for reliability is exceeded.

Since the virtualized hardware is usually generated automatically from ahigh-level specification such as sequential code, further optimizationsto reduce checking logic are also possible. Simplified versions of thehardware can be instantiated to check certain invariant properties ofthe physical tile's operation. These invariants can be explicitlyprovided by the programmer in the original code (programmer assertionsoften offer an independent check for results), or that can be inferredfrom the sequential code, for example by selecting a few among theassertions automatically generated by symbolic execution[Supercomputer]. For example, in the above speculation/retry modelexample, the f computation can be a sorting algorithm (without dualmodular redundancy), and the verification computation can be a checkthat a random subsequence of the array is ordered. If this simple checkfails, the sorting routine is retried; but if it succeeds, the statechanges produced by the sorting routine are committed.

The probability of failure throughout the system can also be minimizedby conventional circuit-level hardening (for soft errors), andwear-leveling (for aging-induced transient and permanent failures).

An end-to-end checksum is often a more hardware-efficient technique fornetworks. When a message with a wrong checksum arrives into any FSM, aspeculation failure action may be performed.

Permanent failures in the network can also be detected, and can berectified by disabling failed nodes and reconfiguring the packet routinglogic to avoid such nodes. This is only possible with network topologiesthat provide path redundancy (i.e. more than one possible route fromeach source to each destination).

The invention has been shown and described with reference to aparticular preferred embodiment. However, it is to be understood thatthe invention is not limited to that particular embodiment, and thatvarious modifications, additions and alterations may be made to theinvention by one skilled in the art without departing from the spiritand scope of the invention.

1. A hypervisor system for virtualizing application-specificsupercomputers, the system comprising: a. At least one software-virtualhardware pair consisting of a software application, and anapplication-specific virtual supercomputer for accelerating the saidsoftware application, wherein: i. The virtual supercomputer comprisesone or more virtual tiles; and ii. The software application and thevirtual tiles communicate among themselves with messages; b. One or morereconfigurable physical tiles, wherein each virtual tile of each virtualsupercomputer can be implemented on at least one physical tile, byconfiguring the physical tile to perform the virtual tile's function;and c. A scheduler implemented substantially in hardware, for parallelpre-emptive scheduling of the virtual tiles on the physical tiles.
 2. Amethod for automatically converting a single-threaded softwareapplication into an (application, virtual supercomputer) pair integratedinto the hypervisor system of claim 1, wherein the method comprises: a)Converting an arbitrary code fragment from the single-threaded softwareapplication into customized non-virtual supercomputer hardware whoseexecution is functionally equivalent to the software execution of thecode fragment; b) Generating interfaces on the hardware and softwareparts of the application, which: i. Perform a software-to-hardwareprogram state transfer at the entries of the code fragment; ii. Performa hardware-to-software program state transfer at the exits of the codefragment; and iii. Maintain memory coherence between the software andhardware memories. c) Partitioning the non-virtual supercomputerobtained in steps a) and b) into multiple modules; d) Creating a unionmodule which is capable of realizing any of the modules created by stepc) depending on the configuration parameters provided to the unionmodule; e) Creating an (application, virtual supercomputer) pairwherein: i. The application part of the said pair is the single-threadedsoftware application as modified in step b); ii. The virtualsupercomputer part of the said pair consists of virtual tiles, each ofwhich is a module obtained in step c); f) Adding the functionality tostop, start, read the internal state, and write the internal state ofthe union module of step d); to create the physical tile capable ofrealizing any among the set of virtual tiles of step e); and g)Integrating at least one copy of the physical tile obtained in step f)within the hypervisor system of claim 1, to realize the said(application, virtual supercomputer) pair within the hypervisor.
 3. Thehypervisor system of claim 1, where the system further comprises: a. Atable mapping each virtual tile i. to NULL, if the virtual tile is notcurrently contained in any physical tile; ii. to the physical tile thevirtual tile is currently contained in, otherwise; b. A first levelcache for the said table near each physical tile, mapping messagedestination virtual tiles to message destination physical tiles, suchthat when sending a message from a message source virtual tile v0contained in a message source physical tile p0, to a message destinationvirtual tile v contained in a message destination physical tile p: Themessage source physical tile p0 containing the message source virtualtile v0 can send a message directly and efficiently to the messagedestination physical tile p containing the message destination virtualtile v by adding a field containing p to the message as it leaves thesource virtual tile v0 contained in p0, using the p field for routingthe message toward the destination virtual tile v contained in p,through a scalable network, and reverting the message back to itsoriginal form when the destination virtual tile is reached, whenever vis found to be mapped to p in the first level cache near the messagesource physical tile p0.
 4. The hypervisor system of claim 3, furthercomprising: a. A monitor unit for implementing a tile replacementpolicy, by i. Collecting statistics from physical tiles; ii. Analyzingthe statistics; and iii. When any request arrives at the monitor unitfor a physical tile to replace, responding with the best physical tileto replace based on the said tile replacement policy.
 5. The hypervisorsystem of claim 4, further comprising: a. A plurality of owner unitseach responsible for searching a part of the table, where the parts donot overlap and together constitute the entire table, such that when themessage source physical tile p0 fails to find the message destinationvirtual tile v in the first level cache near p0, the owner unit o0responsible for v searches for v in its own part of the table in orderto resolve the first level cache miss, as follows: i. If the owner unito0 finds virtual tile v to be mapped to physical tile p in its part ofthe table:
 1. The first level cache near the message source physicaltile p0 is updated to include the (v to p) mapping;
 2. The message isdelivered directly from the message source physical tile p0 to themessage destination physical tile p containing the message destinationvirtual tile v; ii. Otherwise, if the owner unit o0 cannot find virtualtile v in its part of the table:
 1. The owner unit o0 asks the monitorunit for a physical tile to replace;
 2. If the physical tile p suppliedby the monitor is already occupied by another virtual tile v′, the ownerunit o0 requests the owner unit of responsible for v′: a. To invalidateall first level cache entries in the system containing the (v′ top)mapping; and b. To stop the physical tile p and save the state of thevirtual tile v′ contained in p; c. To remove the (v′ to p) mapping fromo1's part of the table;
 3. The owner unit o0 inserts the (v to p)mapping in o0's part of the table;
 4. The owner unit o0 writes the lastsaved state of the virtual tile v into the physical tile p and restartsv where it left off;
 5. The first level cache near the message sourcephysical tile p0 is updated to include the (v to p) mapping;
 6. Themessage is delivered directly from the message source physical tile p0to the message destination physical tile p containing the messagedestination virtual tile v.
 6. The hypervisor system of claim 5, furthercomprising a means for ensuring that given any two virtual tiles v1 andv2, the messages from v1 to v2 are not reordered during paralleloperation.
 7. The hypervisor system of claim 5, further comprising ameans for ensuring that messages are not lost: given two virtual tilesv1 and v2, whenever a message is sent from a virtual tile v1 to v2, thesaid message is always delivered to the virtual tile v2 during paralleloperation.
 8. The hypervisor system of claim 5, wherein the coherenceamong the table and the first level caches near the physical tiles isaccomplished using directory-based cache coherence; such that coherencemessaging overhead is reduced.
 9. The hypervisor system of claim 5,wherein the monitor implements a replacement policy complying withService Level Agreements.
 10. The hypervisor system of claim 1, whereinat least one physical tile is implemented in ASIC technology, and iscapable of realizing any one of the virtual tiles of a virtualsupercomputer, based on configuration parameters provided to the saidphysical tile.
 11. The hypervisor system of claim 10, further comprisingan adaptive method for allocating resources to ASIC physical tiles, themethod comprising: a) Determining the frequency of use of each(application, virtual supercomputer) pair over a recent time interval;b) Searching for an (application, virtual supercomputer) pair that hasthe greatest frequency of use as determined in step a), such that i. Thepair is not already mapped to an ASIC physical tile; and ii. Thefrequency of use of the said pair exceeds a threshold; c) If such a paircould be found in step b), creating a new ASIC physical tile for thispair; d) For each ASIC physical tile in the hypervisor system: i.Increasing or decreasing the resources allocated to this ASIC physicaltile, in order to make the allocated resources proportional to theaverage frequency of use of the (application, virtual supercomputer)implemented by this ASIC physical tile; e) Repeating all of the stepsabove, periodically.
 12. The hypervisor system of claim 1 wherein atleast one (application, virtual supercomputer) pair is modified toimplement a hardware-accelerated virtual operating system with externalnetwork connectivity, such that: a. One virtual tile in the virtualsupercomputer of the said pair comprises a general purposemicroprocessor for running the operating system; b. The remainingvirtual tiles of the virtual supercomputer of the said pair implementthe hardware acceleration of kernel codes and user application codeswithin the said operating system, and c. The application part of thesaid pair is replaced by a network gateway connecting the said virtualtile containing the general purpose microprocessor, and optionally othervirtual tiles of the said virtual supercomputer, to an external network.13. The hypervisor system of claim 1, further comprising: a capabilityto add a new (application, virtual supercomputer) pair to the system, orto delete such a pair from the system.
 14. The hypervisor system ofclaim 1, further comprising the capability of: a. Dividing at least onephysical tile into a plurality of physical sub-tiles of possibly unequalsizes; and b. During scheduling, allocating a virtual tile to a physicalsub-tile that is large enough to accommodate the virtual tile; forimproving the utilization of physical tiles.
 15. The hypervisor systemof claim 1, further comprising a capability to restrict each virtualtile within a (software application, virtual computer) pair tocommunicate only with the other virtual tiles of the same virtualsupercomputer and with the software application of the said pair, forachieving isolation of (application, virtual supercomputer) pairs withinthe hypervisor from one another.
 16. The method of claim 2, furthercomprising the step: while creating the virtual supercomputer from thesoftware application of the said pair, synthesizing custom redundantchecking circuits, such that the reliability of the physical tilesrealizing the virtual tiles of the virtual supercomputer is increased.17. A hypervisor system for virtualizing application-specificsupercomputers, the system comprising: a. At least one software-virtualhardware pair consisting of a software application, and anapplication-specific virtual supercomputer for accelerating the saidsoftware application, wherein: i. The virtual supercomputer comprisesone or more virtual tiles; and ii. The software application and thevirtual tiles communicate among themselves with messages; b. One or morereconfigurable physical tiles, wherein each virtual tile of each virtualsupercomputer can be implemented on at least one physical tile, byconfiguring the physical tile to perform the virtual tile's function;and c. Means for parallel pre-emptive scheduling of the virtual tiles onthe physical tiles, wherein a scheduler is implemented substantially inhardware.